valuables safe while travelling

icfkingdom Thursday, January 19, 2017 The Sweet Wanderlust ‏@brittany_kulick Jan 18 More Top tips on how to keep your valuables safe while travelling from @TheWholeWorldOr http://tinyurl.com/hx4ng3o #backpacking #travel #ttot Why not follow us on Facebook or Twitter for more regular updates on our adventures, Instagram for our awesome photos & Pinterest for our inspirational travel boards! https://www.thewholeworldornothing.com/blog/how-to-stay-safe-avoid-theft-while-backpacking/2017/1 Disclosure: Some of the links contained in this post are “affiliate links.” meaning that if you click on the link and then purchase the item we will receive a small amount of commission - this does not affect the price you pay in any way HOW TO STAY SAFE & AVOID THEFT WHILE BACKPACKING Travel Tips, Sarah Since we started travelling full time in 2015 we’ve been fortunate to not have had anything stolen from us. Sure we’ve lost a couple of things here and there, like a ring in the sea whilst surfing and a jacket on an overnight bus but they were our own fault and didn’t cause any major inconvenience. However, if while travelling you have something valuable or important stolen from you it can very much put a dampener on your trip and could be costly to replace. Even if you have good insurance it will likely cost you an excess, not to mention your wasted time in getting a police report to make a claim and wasted energy anguishing over how it happened. As budget backpackers we always do our best to save a few quid on, well everything. So to then have to fork out unexpected costs because our phone or wallet got nicked it would be a nightmare for us, as I’m sure it would you. And so we’ve put together our top travel tips for preventing theft while travelling. PIN ME FOR LATER! PROTECT YOUR BACKPACK WHEN TRAVELLING We know all too well how vulnerable you can feel landing in a new destination with everything that’s important to you on your back. It’s late, you’re jetlagged, you’re hot and sweaty, new sights, sounds and smells are assaulting your senses and all you want to do is get to your hostel and relax with a beer. You also stick out and are an immediate target. But the key to protecting your backpack when travelling is preparation. We always have at least the first night booked in a hostel and have a map downloaded from Maps.Me (really helpfully they work offline) so that we know exactly where we are going in case an unscrupulous taxi or tuk tuk driver tries to give us the runaround. Where possible we will always also plan to arrive somewhere new during the daytime. It’s a no brainer that wandering around at 3am in a strange place comes with added risks. Of course arrival times are sometimes outside of your control and our advice in this situation would be to plan ahead as much as possible. Protect your backpack when travelling Ask around or email the hostel to find out how much you can expect to pay or the best route to walk if it’s close by and check they have a 24 hour reception. We once had to wait on the street from 5am until 7am when the cleaner arrived outside a hostel in Bolivia - not the smartest move to avoid theft while backpacking looking back. If you are travelling on your own or even in a couple chat to fellow travellers and see if they are headed in the same direction, safety in numbers and all that. KEEP VALUABLES SAFE WHEN TRAVELLING Having said all that your backpack will however be at its most stealable without you attached to it. For this reason make sure you separate all your super valuable stuff (I’m talking passport, cash, electronics etc) into another smaller bag to keep on your person at all times. While travelling on an overnight sleeper bus or train we either keep this bag between us, or wrapped around our feet and secured to the seat in front with a bike lock. £9.45 BUY ON AMAZON We used this a lot on trains in China to secure our backpacks to overhead luggage racks and also when airport sleeping to fasten all of our bags together. Of course these things can be cut but thefts are usually opportunistic and so the less easy you make it the better. FullSizeRender.jpg We always try to sit on the side of the bus where the luggage compartment opens (sometimes it opens both sides so this doesn’t always work) but you have more chance of being aware of when bags are being taken off the bus. It isn’t unknown for people to hide in bus luggage racks in order to be able to rummage through travellers’ luggage in some countries so do be wary of this and always read reviews when choosing bus companies. FullSizeRender.jpg On one route in Thailand at each stop, the driver would cautiously open the luggage compartment with a metal pole in his hand before retrieving disembarking passengers’ luggage! Quite often due to language barriers and poor organisation you may arrive at your stop quite suddenly and not have much time to gather your stuff and whenever you get off bus or train or taxi (or whatever!) so make it habit to check your seat and around where you’ve been sitting for anything you may have dropped or left behind. Never leave your ‘valuable’ bag on a bus when getting off to pass a border control or for a break either. We met far too many people who had things stolen this way. One guy even just nipped off for a cigarette and came back to find his passport had been nicked. And by someone on the bus too because no one else had gotten on! FullSizeRender.jpg HOSTEL SAFETY TIPS The majority of hostels provide lockers to keep your belongings in as standard and even if there isn’t a full size one to fit all of your belongings in, there will usually be a smaller one to put your most valuable stuff in. If there are no lockers - pick another hostel, it’s that simple. Be sure to carry a small padlock with you too as these are generally not provided, we use the combination ones below to avoid additional responsibility of losing the key. Some of the more modern hostels even have charge points in lockers too which is super handy - don’t be the idiot that leaves their stuff charging in the dorm while not there! £6.99 £14.99 BUY ON AMAZON The same goes with the rest of your belongings. Added to the fact that it’s super annoying to share a dorm with someone who has their stuff constantly strewn all over the place, if you keep things tidied away in your backpack it’s less of a temptation for someone to nick it. Don’t ever be fooled into thinking you can trust all fellow travellers, they can be the worst when it comes to stealing from backpackers. We met a girl in Colombia who had her phone and charger swiped from the side of her bed while she was sleeping, most likely by another girl who had checked out early that morning. FullSizeRender.jpg PREVENT PICKPOCKETS There are tons of scams going around in every country when it comes to pickpocketing. I very nearly got done by a scam in a bus station South America called the ‘mustard scam’. Basically what happens is someone sneaks up and squirts something (like mustard) on you only to then point it out and pretend to help you get cleaned up while they or someone else is pickpocketing you. Luckily James saw the guy squirt liquid foundation on the back of my legs and chased him off, but had I been travelling on my own and not aware of the scam it might have ended up very differently. Another popular one the world over is to take advantage of or create a distraction. Whether that be a street performance or a faked argument, always make sure you have your hands in your pockets or your bag held tightly to you when you feel your attention being diverted to something. FullSizeRender.jpg Likewise if you are sat in a cafe or restaurant, always make sure your bag is secure. There’s a well known technique where a hook is used to lift bags from under tables and backs of chairs without the thief drawing attention to themselves by getting too close. Also never carry your phone or your wallet in your back pocket - that’s just asking for trouble. Carrying a bag in some cities isn’t the best option. Of course it’s not always possible not to if you need things with you, but if I can fit my phone and cash in my pockets I will do. Big cities in South East Asia in particular can be known for bag snatches by passing motorbikes. For this reason I am always cautious to stand well back from the road when waiting to cross and keep it close to me. It’s not easy for me, but many of my female travel friends with rather more ample bosoms swear by carrying their cash, cards and phones in their bras. There is also the money belt of course. Personally I think it’s a waste of time. Thieves know they exist and let’s be honest, when you are rummaging around under your shirt to buy something it’s not the most discrete. Also don’t take things that you don’t want stolen with you if you are going out on a bender. Leave your valuables locked away at the hostel. Whilst intoxicated, naturally your senses aren’t going to be at at their height and you’re not always so aware of who’s around you. Don’t take the unnecessary risk. Prevent pickpockets KEEP YOUR PASSPORT SAFE Without a doubt one of the most important things you will want to keep safe while travelling is your passport. Without it you are pretty much stuck. For this reason some people prefer to always keep it on their person so they know where it is at all times. Personally I think that is a terrible idea and other than when we are physically carrying everything because we are moving locations, we always leave ours locked in a safe or locker at the place we are staying. FullSizeRender.jpg What we do do however, is carry photocopies and scanned versions of them on our phones. For me this avoids a few things; them getting nicked, them getting damaged or us being forced to hand them over to anyone dodgy. I’ll give you an example of this. In Bolivia there is a scam whereby ‘fake’ police officers will stop tourists and to see proof of ID in the form of a passport, only to either run off with it or confiscate it to coerce you into attending a ‘police station’ to get you on your own and further rob you. Whilst we didn’t have any experience of this first hand whilst travelling in Bolivia, we did hear about it from other travellers that we trust. And I’m not trying to terrify you here, it’s just these things do happen and can be easily avoided if you are prepared. KEEP MONEY SAFE WHEN TRAVELLING We rarely carry more than £50 on us at anyone time and usually far less. When taking money out from a cash point we always take what we don’t need immediately back to the hostel. We always carry a few hundred US dollars with us as emergency cash but this is seperated into different locations and hidden away. If carrying a fair amount of cash, please don’t keep it all in one place. FullSizeRender.jpg Same with your cards, it can be tempting to keep everything together but just putting one card in a different bag or compartment could be the difference between being stranded in a foreign country with no access to any funds. Some people go so far as to carry a ‘fake wallet’ with a small amount of cash in it and a couple of expired credit cards. Another one is to carry a cheap phone to swap your SIM into to take out and about with you, we never personally felt the need to go that far. Rather we try to look as least touristy as possible by not flashing our stuff or taking unnecessary valuables around with us. Of course as bloggers working online this can be hard because we quite often need our camera or laptops with us but we cut down the risks by asking locals and hostel staff about any unsafe areas and sticking to busy streets. In terms of our main bulk of money, we keep our cash safe while travelling by keeping it in an online saving account that doesn’t have a card. Then we simply transfer smaller amounts of money out every week or so into our current accounts that have cards attached. That way if a card gets cloned the thief doesn’t have access to everything. FullSizeRender.jpg We always use a credit card to pay for anything online such as flights, just because you generally have more protection on your purchases. PREVENT IDENTITY THEFT Which brings me nicely onto how to prevent identity theft while travelling. Unless you are staying in a private apartment through airbnb or couchsurfing when using the internet whilst travelling, you will be doing so over open networks. This leaves you wide open to having personal sensitive information stolen. As bloggers working online, even having our social media sites hacked would be bad enough, but imagine if that was your entire travel savings. It doesn’t bear thinking about. But there’s an easy enough way to minimise the risk. Get a VPN. Prevent Identity Theft - Use a VPN and I won’t get all techy here but what it does is basically scramble your data so anyone else online trying to look at it can’t. They are also useful if you are travelling in a country with any internet restrictions such China because you can connect via a country without those restrictions. The one we use is called Vyper VPN, we have used it all over South America and Asia without issue. Always keep a close eye on your bank statements and for ease in case you ever do fall foul of financial theft, we would also recommend adding a trusted 3rd party back home to your account who can act on your before if need be. Now that i’ve scared you half to death with all the scams and stories of people having their belongings stolen while travelling, let me remind you we travelled to all these countries I’m talking about and never had any problems whatsoever. So if you’re a first time traveller, don’t be scared. Just travel smart, be alert to your surroundings and take sensible precautions. On the whole the world is a safe place and there are far more trustworthy people than there are untrustworthy people. And when you’ve been travelling for a while these tips and tricks will become second nature. FullSizeRender.jpg It is also probably worth mentioning though that even for seasoned travellers it’s important to never become complacent and let your guard down too much just because a situation feels safe and familiar. Whilst we've tried to cover as much as possible in this post, we know there are probably a few things we've missed! So please join in and share your own top tips on how to stay safe and avoid theft while backpacking in our comments section below. Sarah x Enjoyed this post? Why not follow us on Facebook or Twitter for more regular updates on our adventures, Instagram for our awesome photos & Pinterest for our inspirational travel boards! Disclosure: Some of the links contained in this post are “affiliate links.” meaning that if you click on the link and then purchase the item we will receive a small amount of commission - this does not affect the price you pay in any way Sarah McAlister Posted by Oscar del Rosario at 8:05 PM No comments: Email This BlogThis! 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Maritime muscle in the South China Sea What next after the Spratly islands sail-by? SARAH KIRCHBERGER

Maritime muscle in the South China Sea What next after the Spratly islands sail-by? SARAH KIRCHBERGER PHOTO: Scott Webb Share More Republish INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, LAW, NATIONAL SECURITY | ASIA, EAST ASIA, SOUTHEAST ASIA, THE WORLD 6 NOVEMBER 2015 The latest US demonstration of non-compliance with China’s demands in the South China Sea could be seen as a message of support to the outgunned Southeast Asian nations contesting China’s position, writes Sarah Kirchberger. On 27 October the guided-missile destroyer USS Lassen entered into waters close to an artificial island built on the Chinese-occupied Subi Reef in the South China Sea. According to US officials it was carrying out a freedom-of-navigation operation in accord with international law. The ship seems to have deliberately entered the ’12 nautical mile zone’ around the reef claimed by China, and available analyses suggest that Subi Reef was carefully chosen to demonstrate that the US will not respect any maritime claims made around artificially fortified reefs. The operation was sharply criticised and termed illegal by China’s Foreign Ministry on the same day. Looking beyond the specifics, what could be behind such maritime muscle play? And is there a risk of escalation? First, it’s worth noting that this is only one among a series of ‘close encounters’ between the US and China during the past years. Many of those were triggered by routine US surveillance activities, and some were connected with Chinese attempts to declare various kinds of ‘zones’. In April 2001, a US surveillance aircraft was forced to make an emergency landing on Hainan Island after colliding with a Chinese fighter jet whose pilot perished. This caused a major diplomatic rift, even though the Chinese pilot was later found responsible. In March 2009, the ocean surveillance ship USNS Impeccable was harassed repeatedly by Chinese paramilitary and civilian vessels while operating in international waters off Hainan. One further incident seems somewhat comparable: in November 2013, when China had just declared an Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ) including the airspace over the contested Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands, the US promptly let two B-52s cross this airspace unannounced. The fly-by demonstrated that China was unable or unwilling to enforce its ADIZ. The second issue to consider is timing. The basis for the present disagreement originates from China’s ‘U-shaped’ or ‘Nine-dotted line’ claim which holds that essentially all the land features in the South China Sea are Chinese sovereign territory. Several notes verbales submitted to the UN in 2009 have additionally made maritime claims of territorial waters emanating from those rocks, shoals and reefs. The Chinese position was officially challenged in July this year when the Philippines opened a case against China before the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague. The court’s impending ruling will for the first time clarify whether China’s position is compatible with international law. Meanwhile, a US State Department study in 2014 suggested that UNCLOS grants the right to make maritime claims only around uncontested sovereign territory – which the Spratlys clearly are not – and only to islands able to sustain human life, a condition most rocks and reefs in the Spratly archipelago do not meet. Not itself a signatory to UNCLOS, the US has consistently maintained that it will not accept restrictions imposed by other countries’ maritime claims on its freedom of navigation. With the Chinese claim currently under legal investigation, and given the possibility it might be found untenable partly or wholly, this is a particularly sensitive time for the US to challenge China’s expanding maritime presence. Then there’s the situation in China itself where the government is under considerable domestic pressure to enforce its hold on the Spratlys. As Bill Hayton notes in his recent book The South China Sea, the U-shaped line claim has pretty much been promoted to the status of a secular religion (p. 267). Backpedalling could prove near impossible given powerful nationalist sentiment built up through decades of propaganda. Beijing is unlikely to accept any ruling not in its favour, even though China is a signatory to UNCLOS. An official rebuttal of China’s claim by an internationally recognised court of law would certainly strengthen the moral position of other claimants and make the Chinese position much more difficult to maintain. It is therefore likely that the ongoing case causes considerable uneasiness in Beijing. Finally, the current incident must be seen in light of China’s recent maritime behavior. The Lassen incident came after a period of intensified Chinese fortification activities in the South China Sea. Satellite images published in 2014 and 2015 have shown runways, airstrips and hangars being built on artificially fortified islands in increasing numbers. In the perception of many Western and regional observers, China has been quietly encroaching upon the South China Sea, factually enlarging its presence to the detriment of other claimants who don’t have comparable resources to command. In addition to the newly erected structures, observers have noted China’s streamlining of civilian and paramilitary forces under the newly established Coast Guard with some alarm. Andrew Erickson in particular has drawn attention to China’s Maritime Militia, a little understood force consisting of civilian and paramilitary vessels. Regional observers have pointed out how in the various island conflict scenarios it is facing, China seems to calibrate its maritime behavior very carefully depending on the opponent’s capability level and alliance status. In the South China Sea, China seems to consciously exploit the fact that it has no equally capable opponent or alliance structure to contend with. Resisting all efforts to negotiate a multilateral agreement and insisting on bilateral negotiations, China automatically puts smaller countries at a disadvantage. It certainly didn’t dispel any ‘China Threat’ perceptions in Southeast Asia when China’s then Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi remarked at the 17th ASEAN Regional Forum in 2010 that “China is a big country, and other countries are small countries and that is just a fact.” Simply going by the number of human casualties caused by each claimant country in all the conflicts in the South China Sea so far, China undoubtedly takes the lead in terms of aggressiveness displayed. Taking all these factors into account, the latest US demonstration of non-compliance with China’s demands in the South China Sea could be seen as a message of support to the outgunned Southeast Asian nations contesting China’s position. The risk that this and similar actions could lead to an actual naval confrontation between the US and China seems low given the effective lack of punitive measures employable by China without risk of self-destruction. Further low-key incidents, especially involving China’s Maritime Militia, are however likely to occur much more often in the future.

World War III - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_III World War III (WWIII or WW3) and Third World War are names given to a hypothetical third worldwide military conflict subsequent to World War I and World War II. The term has been in use since the end of World War II. ..... Bill Downs wrote in 1951 that, "To my mind, the answer is: Yes, Korea is the beginning of World War III.

Strategic Defense Initiative Main article: Strategic Defense Initiative The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was proposed by US President Ronald Reagan on 23 March 1983.[20] In the later part of his Presidency, numerous factors (which included watching the 1983 movie The Day After and hearing through a Soviet defector that Able Archer 83 almost triggered a Russian first strike) had turned Ronald Reagan against the concept of winnable nuclear war, and he began to see nuclear weapons as more of a "wild card" than a strategic deterrent. Although he later believed in disarmament treaties slowly blunting the danger of nuclear weaponry by reducing their number and alert status, he also believed a technological solution might allow incoming ICBMs to be shot down, thus making the US invulnerable to a first strike. However the USSR saw the SDI concept as a major threat, since unilateral deployment of the system would allow the US to launch a massive first strike on the Soviet Union without any fear of retaliation. The SDI concept was to use ground-based and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD). The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO) was set up in 1984 within the United States Department of Defense to oversee the Strategic Defense Initiative. If activated, Operation Reforger would have largely consisted of convoys like this one from Operation Earnest Will in 1987, though much larger. While troops could easily fly across the Atlantic, the heavy equipment and armor reinforcements would have to come by sea. A Warsaw Pact invasion would have come via three main paths through Germany Seven Days to the River Rhine was a top secret military simulation exercise developed in 1979 by the Warsaw Pact. It started with the assumption that NATO would launch a nuclear attack on the Vistula river valley in a first-strike scenario, which would result in as many as two million Polish civilian casualties.[10] In response, a Soviet counter-strike would be carried out against West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Denmark, with Warsaw Pact forces invading West Germany and aiming to stop at the River Rhine by the seventh day. Other USSR plans stopped only upon reaching the French border on day nine. Individual Warsaw Pact states were only assigned their own subpart of the strategic picture; in this case, the Polish forces were only expected to go as far as Germany. The Seven Days to the Rhine plan envisioned that Poland and Germany would be largely destroyed by nuclear exchanges, and that large numbers of troops would die of radiation sickness. It was estimated that NATO would fire nuclear weapons behind the advancing Soviet lines to cut off their supply lines and thus blunt their advance. While this plan assumed that NATO would use nuclear weapons to push back any Warsaw Pact invasion, it did not include nuclear strikes on France or the United Kingdom. Newspapers speculated when this plan was declassified, that France and the UK were not to be hit in an effort to get them to withhold use of their own nuclear weapons. Exercise Able Archer Main article: Able Archer 83 President Ronald Reagan and Soviet double agent Oleg Gordievsky, who later told the west how close the Able Archer 83 exercise had brought the Soviets to ordering a First Strike.

Territorial disputes in the South China Sea are turning important maritime trade routes into potential geopolitical flashpoints GAVIN BRIGGS

Geography matters in the South China Sea Territorial disputes in the South China Sea are turning important maritime trade routes into potential geopolitical flashpoints GAVIN BRIGGS PHOTO: AFP PHOTO Share More Republish GOVERNMENT AND GOVERNANCE, TRADE AND INDUSTRY, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, LAW, NATIONAL SECURITY | AUSTRALIA, ASIA, EAST ASIA, SOUTH ASIA, SOUTHEAST ASIA, THE PACIFIC, THE WORLD 23 JULY 2015 China’s ‘muscular diplomacy’ is changing the geopolitical landscape in the South China Sea, turning remote bits of real estate into hotly-contested territory. Our smartphones have seemed to remove the significance geography once had in our daily lives. Advanced communication systems and technological devices may fool us into thinking we have become unshackled from our terrestrial bonds yet, geography matters. Three of Australia’s top four trading partners are all located north of the South China Sea. China (1), Japan (2) and South Korea (4) each rely on sea lanes stretching thousands of kilometres along various maritime trade routes across the globe, several of which link to Australian ports. Our third largest two-way trading partner is the United States, which incidentally remains our number one security alliance relationship. States seek to secure safe, unimpeded passage of shipping along sea lanes and this is why geography still matters when it comes to security, even in an age of cybersecurity. Disputed claims over bodies of water and their geographic specks of assorted islands, atolls and reefs can quickly become potential flashpoints. Any such state-on-state conflict would quickly demonstrate the geostrategic significance of these areas of relatively remote pieces of real-estate. The South China Sea continues to have several overlapping maritime and territorial claims. These exist between China and a host of states including Vietnam, The Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei. China’s declaration that their maritime border reasserts centuries-old ties and extends many hundreds of kilometres south of Hainan Island, is challenging arrangements under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). China’s ongoing activity in the South China Sea’s disputed Paracel and Spratly Island chains is not a recent development. It is, however, becoming ever more commercial in orientation and ‘muscular’ in its execution. China and Vietnam clashed over both island chains in 1978 and 1988. On both occasions, it resulted in dozens of military personnel killed but a victory of sorts for China. In 2014, Vietnamese vessels came into contact against Chinese shipping in the Paracel Islands. This was in response to China’s National Offshore Oil Corporation’s brief deployment of deep-sea rigs and drilling in the disputed area. The Scarborough Shoal is another ongoing dispute in the South China Sea. Both China and the Philippines have competing claims. In 2012, both countries were involved in a naval stand-off. This then saw the Philippines take their case the following year to a United Nations tribunal to deal with this infringement of UNCLOS, hoping to force an outcome it believes will be in its favour. The result would be potentially large-scale reserves of subsea oil and gas resources as well as large fish stocks. Satellite imagery detected massive large-scale land reclamation activities by China on Fiery Cross Reef in the Spratly Islands. The transformation of pristine reefs and atolls, morphed into islands, has geopolitical security implications. It can potentially build capabilities on these ‘new’ islands and project force far from the mainland, and secure its so-called ‘First Island Chain’. This would consolidate its control and coverage over a broad maritime environment and wield greater influence over the region. Long-term, China can continue to build its case to secure eventual legitimacy over its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) claim, along with all the potential subsea oil and gas resources in large parts of the South China Sea. Such activity shows China takes seriously what it claims is its rightful territory. Another dispute based on geography is in the East China Sea, between China and Japan over the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands. To add a small measure of concern, both nations now have overlapping air defence identification zones over this disputed region. This investment in geopolitical gains will increase China’s military capabilities far from its mainland. Such activities are being carefully watched from outside the region as well, including the United States. China is willing to deal with any distrust or even animosity such action may attract from some of its neighbours. Meanwhile, China aims to reclaim what it believes to be rightfully theirs while securing another of its geostrategic objectives. The continued exploration and extraction of hydrocarbons by state-owned enterprises and commercial entities in these troubled waters will remain fraught. Development of potential commercial opportunities meanwhile operates in an environment that could quickly escalate beyond just a flashpoint. The result of any serious armed state-on-state engagement would disrupt, even damage, sea lines of communication and negatively impact on Australia’s economic trade with the region and our major two-way trading partners. We can ponder media coverage of satellite images captured for intelligence and analysis purposes of the environmental degradation taking place on Spratly Islands’ reefs and atolls. We can also patiently wait for disputes to be resolved through an international body, which can ultimately be ignored by either party. However, China shows what a bit of muscular diplomacy can deliver when it gets on with the job and literally changes the geopolitical landscape in the process. Back to Top Share More Republish Join the APP Society 7 Responses Jackie Bacud AUGUST 6, 2015 UN nothing to do for the problem they are reactive they are not pro active.. REPLY Arie Portillo AUGUST 6, 2015 FYI. Chinese were already infiltrating since the beginning of Philippines history. From rags to riches as they call it, Chinese are the most entrepreneur-building community in the Philippines. They started from scraps to airlines, breweries, and big industrial businesses. We cannot deny these Chinese stirs the Philippines’ economy, may it prospers or not. If these Chinese are developing on these islands why not the Philippines will also do the same. Instead of stopping China why not collaborate with them and make a deal. We have been sharing their business appetite decades back why not now? If the Philippines government is not capable of exploring and exploiting those vast oil and other mineral deposit in these islands (disputed?) then it is not wise to hinder them. Let them work and we take our share is the best remedy. Peace not war. business not territorial. Hide text REPLY Ramil B. Anticamara AUGUST 9, 2015 We are Filipinos not Chinese and this is Philippine territory REPLY Marcos AUGUST 10, 2015 We will fight what is ours. Would you let your neighbors exploit your territorial fishing grounds? I think no. REPLY kandy AUGUST 16, 2015 I agree with you. We will fight for our benefits. By the way, I am chinese. REPLY John Santos AUGUST 13, 2015 Are you saying Arie Portillo that if i see your car in your garage, i can use it since you are not currently using it?? REPLY Leopoldo Liceralde Sr. AUGUST 7, 2015 We urge china to respect international law remove your artificial man made island and stay away from phil sea. The world is not yours. REPLY Back to Top Leave your Comment Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment:

Space Debris 1957 - 2016 | Watch this Space - Episode 5

Space Debris 1957 - 2016 | Watch this Space - Episode 5 Stuart Grey Stuart Grey Subscribed504 Add to Share More 52,046 views 198 3 ShareEmbedEmail https://youtu.be/O64KM4GuRPk Start at: 0:30 Published on Aug 1, 2016 Over 40,000 man-made objects have been tracked in Earth orbit since 1957. Many of the objects have since burned up in the atmosphere and currently there are just over 17,000 trackable objects in orbit. Less than 10% of these active satellites. This visualisation, created by Dr Stuart Grey, lecturer at University College London, shows how the amount of space debris has changed since the dawn of the space age. The tracking data covers objects over 10cm in size and is supplied by https://www.space-track.org If you are interested in our orbital environment, please subscribe to Watch this Space! If you have any questions or would like to use this video please get in touch at: http://www.stugrey.com or http://www.twitter.com/stugrey Category Science & Technology License Standard YouTube License SHOW LESS COMMENTS • 47 Oscar del Rosario Add a public comment... Top comments AlTerkait AlTerkait7 months ago It looks like so much because the scaling is waaaay off. Sure, that's a lot of debris, but realistically, the distance between them is very vast. Reply 27 View all 3 replies hoogreg hoogreg4 months ago Yea well, if I were TO SCALE you'd be out of here so fast I tell you what. Reply Anthony C Anthony C1 month ago While the scale is big here the real problem is the sheer volume of debris being tracked since 1957. It basicly means if we dont start to find a way to clear/limit this effect as we could render our options when it comes to orbital craft/assembly etc. Reply JUanHernandezism JUanHernandezism3 months ago year 2185 on a colonized Mars. Son: Daddy, what was earth like in 2016? Father: Earth was beautiful. It had junk everywhere, in piles at a dump, the ocean, and we even had junk rings around the planet! Reply 13 David Masterson David Masterson6 months ago Seeing all that and I'm sitting here wondering with all that up there, why i still cant get a 4G signal?!? Reply 9 View all 3 replies Joe Ruggia Joe Ruggia2 months ago because its all ground based and the earth is flat not a ball Reply Ryan Schatz Ryan Schatz1 month ago @ Joe Ruggia - Haha. Funny joke Reply tomika2700 tomika27005 months ago Wow. We pollute everything. Reply 8 light streamwolf light streamwolf1 month ago tomika2700 yep Reply 1 FlipFlop FlipFlop4 months ago We look like fucking viruses! Reply 5 MONSTER MONSTER1 month ago we are! :3 Reply 2 Jennifer Balboa Jennifer Balboa1 month ago so what im seeing isnt stars it a bunch of metal debris reflecting light fromm the sun? Reply 2 T38 Talon T38 Talon6 months ago At some point we won't be able to launch and make it through 'the cloud'. We're at the advent of micro-sats so this will only get worse, quickly. I can see a cascade/domino type collision in our future with stuff raining down like a meteor shower... Reply 2 Kandake of Mars Kandake of Mars2 months ago you should checkout info on 'Kessler Syndrome' Reply GodBlessHipHop GodBlessHipHop4 months ago This made me cry.. Reply 2 Jay Walkinn Jay Walkinn5 months ago (edited) All those satellites, and space junk. and there not visible to the eye? how come we never see a silhouette of one passing in front of the moon. #nasalies Reply 3 jjesss064 jjesss0644 months ago lol get educated Reply 3 Mamãe, sou cult Mamãe, sou cult1 month ago because they are too small. Most of them are not bigger than a car. If you see a car from miles and miles away, you won't be able to actually "see" them. They are too far away and too little to be visible, but that doesn't mean that we don't have a future problem in our hands. Reply 2 MECHcore MECHcore1 month ago Soon we gonna have rings like Saturn Reply 1 Jill Stocker Jill Stocker4 months ago Thanks! Reply 1 rollvideo rollvideo4 months ago (edited) In other words: If a satellite is placed in a geo-stationary orbit (staying above the same point on Earth) it must be placed up to 22000kms out into orbit. If a satellite is much lower (like many of them, including the International Space Station) it must travel faster to maintain altitude because of Earth's gravitational pull. Because of this, low-altitude satellites cannot maintain a hovering position. In the early days spy satellites would only get a few minutes to view a particular spot on earth before vision would be lost as it sped away on its constant trip around the planet. With better cameras and lenses this limitation is becoming much less of an issue. Read more Reply 1 lettucepicker lettucepicker4 months ago Amen to space exploration.. Reply 1 lavalamp3773 lavalamp37737 months ago Very nice choice of music. Do the colours denote different types of objects? Reply 2 Cornshanty Hue Cornshanty Hue2 months ago lavalamp3773 what is the song called? Reply 1 Owlsandwich Owlsandwich2 weeks ago Eh This is like throwing a teaspoon of sand into your room, then pinpointing every single sand with a red coloured paper size of your palm and saying "Look how much sand there is in my room!" Reply Mario Justiniano Mario Justiniano3 weeks ago We're even Polluting space... -___- Reply Allian Abogado Allian Abogado3 weeks ago what's the title of the song? Reply happykatgaming happykat happykatgaming happykat3 weeks ago this is all click bait brah Reply happykatgaming happykat happykatgaming happykat3 weeks ago #clickbait Reply happykatgaming happykat happykatgaming happykat3 weeks ago subscribe to my channel Reply Show more

objects we can track fall back to the planet at a rate of about one a day. Most are incinerated in the atmosphere or plop into sparsely populated areas and the sea. In some cases, operators can even steer decrepit satellites into deep-sea zones known as “spacecraft cemeteries.” One of these in the Pacific holds an astonishing 160-some relics, including the European Space Agency’s Jules Verne craft, whose spectacular 2008 reentry was captured on video.

https://www.facebook.com/pg/NOAANESDIS/about/?ref=page_internal clock Closed Now 7:00AM - 5:00PM BUSINESS INFO Launched on October 3, 1970 Mission The National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) is dedicated to providing timely access to global environmental data from satellite... See More CONTACT INFO Call +1 301-713-2087 @NOAANESDIS Message Now http://www.nesdis.socialmedia@noaa.gov http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/ MORE INFO About The NOAA Satellite & Information Service (referred to as NESDIS) is a line office under the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) General Information When you watch the news and see pictures of weather from around the United States or the world, you are seeing data from NOAA’s environmental satellites. NOAA’... See More Products NOAA’s satellites provide a continuous stream of data and information critical for making environmental response decisions. NOAA, in collaboration with the Nati... See More categories Government Organization STORY NESDIS manages NOAA's constellation of environmental satellites and their subsequent data. Milestones 1993 Robert S. Winokur served as the Assistant Administrator for the National Environmental Satellite, Data, & Information Service through April 1999. 1976 David Johnson became the first assistant administrator of NOAA's National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service until retiring in 1982. 1970 Launched on October 3, 1970 https://www.youtube.com/user/NOAASatellites NOAASatellites uploaded and added to GOES-16 Pre-Operational Imagery 1 day ago 0:17 Dust Plume over Desert Southwest NOAASatellites 1 day ago179 views This animation from GOES-16 shows a large plume of dust from the desert southwest being dragged eastward, across northwestern Texas and east Oklahoma, by a front moving over the high plains in the ... https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/news_archives/graveyard_orbits_and_the_satellite_afterlife.html The Kingdom of Heaven September 14, 2015 A vigintillion reasons of men/women circumstances that motivated me to pursue the blog and through seekers of truth and cooperation participation we will build the Kingdom https://www.facebook.com/lovelikerealthing email me sunislandsicf@gmail.com http://biblehub.com/isaiah/57-20.htm http://www.policyforum.net/geography-matters-in-the-south-china-sea/ http://www.policyforum.net/maritime-muscle-in-the-south-china-sea http://icfkingdom.blogspot.com/

A Dizzying Visualization of Earth's Orbital Debris

VIDEOS A Dizzying Visualization of Earth's Orbital Debris A mysterious object expected to make a fiery reentry on November 13 is far from the only piece of space garbage zooming above us. JOHN METCALFE @citycalfe Nov 2, 2015 Comments Share on FacebookTweet A hunk of manmade debris is expected to make a fiery entrance through the atmosphere on Friday, November 13, and NOAA is using it as an opportunity to remind folks of all the crud circling above our heads. (The object, called WT1190F, will likely disintegrate before it hits the Indian Ocean.) The threat isn’t just from big stuff, either; low-earth orbit is littered with hundreds of thousands of fragments that could pepper operational spacecraft. Writes NOAA: For some, it is these smaller, unknown, and untracked objects that pose the biggest threat, for they can damage a satellite or a spacecraft, including manned missions such as the International Space Station. (See this detailed account from NASA of a close encounter between a piece of space debris and NOAA-NASA's Suomi NPP satellite in October 2014.) Although the amount of space debris is not constant, it generally increases every year, sometimes generated from debris collisions, which can potentially create additional debris fragments. One terrifying, albeit hypothetical, scenario known as the Kessler syndrome posits that, should the density of objects in low earth orbit become high enough, collisions between objects could cascade, thereby increasing the likelihood of additional collisions and, ultimately, rendering the use of satellites and other space activities unfeasible. Yikes. (People who watched the 2013 movie Gravity will recall a particularly violent illustration of the Kessler syndrome.) If a spacecraft hits debris coming from the opposite direction, the roughly 22,370 mph-impact would be much stronger. In such an event, a pea-sized bit of garbage would smash into a surface like a “bowling ball moving at 300 miles per hour,” says NASA. The resulting jolt might puncture a hull as well as release a blinding energy flash, as shown in this test of a 17,000-mph projectile at one of the space agency’s ballistic ranges: NASA On the plus side, the objects we can track fall back to the planet at a rate of about one a day. Most are incinerated in the atmosphere or plop into sparsely populated areas and the sea. In some cases, operators can even steer decrepit satellites into deep-sea zones known as “spacecraft cemeteries.” One of these in the Pacific holds an astonishing 160-some relics, including the European Space Agency’s Jules Verne craft, whose spectacular 2008 reentry was captured on video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m-ZDF1KilXc The ESA's Automated Transfer Vehicle Re-enters Earth's Atmosphere Gizmodo Gizmodo Subscribed21,571 Add to Share More 82,690 views 95 3 This video is unlisted. Be considerate and think twice before sharing. ShareEmbedEmail https://youtu.be/m-ZDF1KilXc Start at: 0:45 Uploaded on May 8, 2015 Footage courtesy of NASA http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mult... Read more: http://gizmodo.com/this-watery-gravey... We come from the future. https://gizmodo.com Category Science & Technology License Standard YouTube License SHOW LESS COMMENTS • 6 Oscar del Rosario Add a public comment... Top comments Crus Alexanderson Crus Alexanderson1 year ago Transformers is Real Reply 1 Cruzan Cxx Cruzan Cxx1 year ago Spectacular!!!! Reply 1 77flyright 77flyright1 year ago THERE IS NO OUTER SPACE !!!! WATCH NASA AND THE FLAT EARTH ON SCRAWNY TO BRAWNY CHANNEL.... Reply RADIOACTIV RADIOACTIV1 year ago +77flyright Your brain is flat too. Reply 1 whoami whoami1 year ago Song name anyone? Reply Sonu Chauhan Sonu Chauhan1 year ago imagine these meteor showers coming from outer space may have roamed around other planets with living species on it and now they are on earth _ Reply #RumoAPMESP #RumoAPMESP1 year ago so beauty Reply 1:01 George's boyhood heroes Adby OMEGA 933,770 views × AIM Global Japan Training By sir John Asperin March 26, 2017 Robinson Ortega Recommended for youNEW 55:30 Michelle Go AIM Global Japan Training March 27, 2017 Robinson Ortega Recommended for youNEW 23:13 How to Make a Living on YouTube in 2017 Justin Bryant Recommended for youNEW 23:46 Nitric Oxide Supplements: Do They Work? UltimateFatBurner.com Recommended for you 8:40 Banned TEDTalk about Psychic Abilities | Russell Targ metaRising Recommended for you 32:22 12,980 - AIM Global Marketing Plan Presentation OPP 2017 Robinson Ortega Recommended for you 26:25 Forbbiden Pictures Revealed Saudi Arabia Mt. Sinai Providence Recommended for you 54:17 How to Build Your Own Mini SNES Gizmodo 14,097 views 2:56 LG's Prototype Displays Are the Future of Staring at TV Screens and Beyond Gizmodo 7,967 views 3:19 The Vive's New Tracker Turns Every Real World Object Into a VR Toy Gizmodo 16,579 views 1:14 The Best Gadgets of 2016 Gizmodo 3,101 views 2:42 This Card Computer Will Control Everything You Own Gizmodo 12,885 views 1:38 This Human-Powered Paper Centrifuge is Pure Genius Gizmodo 746 views 1:21 LG’s Smart Fridge Can Remind You When Your Food Expires Gizmodo 3,192 views 1:19 Pollinating with Drones Gizmodo 4,887 views 0:56 The Best 13-Inch Laptop - BATTLEMODO Gizmodo 2,036 views 4:00 All the Best Tech from CES 2017 Gizmodo https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IOwv1j-fUbo Space Debris in Motion NASA.gov Video NASA.gov Video Subscribed109,434 Add to Share More 83,549 views 175 7 ShareEmbedEmail https://youtu.be/IOwv1j-fUbo Start at: 1:21 Published on Oct 28, 2014 The animation depicts the distribution and movement of man-made objects orbiting Earth. Image Credit: NASA Orbital Debris Program Office at JSC Category Science & Technology License Standard YouTube License SHOW LESS COMMENTS • 27 Oscar del Rosario Add a public comment... Top comments Jason Roll Jason Roll1 year ago looks like we treat space the same way we treat our planet Reply 7 Jose Benitez Jose Benitez1 year ago NASA truly is a branch of Hollywood... Reply 4 Brandon Obaza Brandon Obaza1 month ago Jose Benitez History Channel already has a show in the works on collecting space junk called "Astro Pickers" Reply ZadokNiya ZadokNiya2 years ago I think it is about time the space fearing nations puts a plan in place to clean this scrap up Reply 2 Slamz Dunk Slamz Dunk2 years ago How much sunlight does all that block out? Reply 2 View all 3 replies Slamz Dunk Slamz Dunk2 years ago Must be LoL Reply Cynic limbu Cynic limbu2 years ago But you're right, they do block sun's light, tiny amount of it. Reply GodBlessHipHop GodBlessHipHop4 months ago Humans.. smh Reply 2 cn 250 cn 2501 year ago wanna see garbage, check out the northern Pacific garbage pile. bigger than Texas. Reply 1 glashio glashio2 years ago Wall-E Reply 2 Talking Tree Talking Tree2 years ago damn, it doesn't look pretty. Reply 1 AutomotiveElites AutomotiveElites3 weeks ago the scale makes it look much worse :) Reply MrFloppy MrFloppy1 month ago (edited) What if all that junk creates a thin layer of shadows that affects the temperature on our planet and creature manmade climate change? O_O Reply SteveXII SteveXII1 month ago NEIL DEGRASSE AND ROGAN LOLOL Reply Juana Gil Juana Gil1 month ago I didin 't do Reply Juana Gil Juana Gil1 month ago Wow!! It's posible that you can not believe it !! Reply Ève Meunier Ève Meunier1 month ago I ask myself a question that may sound strange at first sight but which, I think, should be asked (if not already done). Because of their metallic and chemical constitution, can these debris damage our magnetic field? Can they harm our atmosphere? Je me pose une question qui peut avoir l'air étrange à première vue mais qui, je pense, doit être posée (Si ce n'est pas déjà fait). À cause de leur constitution métallique et chimique, est-ce que ces débris peuvent nuire à notre champ magnétique? Est-ce qu'ils peuvent nuire à notre atmosphère? Read more Reply Omar Ibn Lynn Ibn Samual Marchant Omar Ibn Lynn Ibn Samual Marchant8 months ago metal recycling in space? what would it take to make stock metal parts in orbit from orbital debris? Reply LockAce LockAce1 year ago PlanetES Reply 1 HG Wells HG Wells2 years ago Awfully misleading. If you go to NASA's site they describe most of these things as <1cm^3 or smaller such as paint chips yet they are represented on this animation as being larger than NYC. Most if not all of the debris makes it way to the atmosphere and burns up... according to NASA. Not sure why they are dramatizing this... maybe because Allah lives on the moon? Read more Reply Willoughby Krenzteinburg Willoughby Krenzteinburg2 years ago (edited) The purpose of this video is to give a visualization of the space debris. If the debris was represented to scale, then it would look no different than any other picture of the Earth from space - you wouldn't see anything - and that would kind of defeat the purpose of the video, don't you think? Your objection is the same thing as claiming that according to world road maps, roads are 15 miles wide. Well - they are road maps. The WHOLE POINT of road maps is to give a visual representation of ROADS, so of course the roads are not going to be to scale. The same thing applies here. The WHOLE POINT is to give a visual representation of space debris. Read more Reply 3 Walter Sobchak Walter Sobchak2 years ago I saw the space station!!!! Reply Dino Citraro Dino Citraro2 years ago Is there an HD version of this? Reply 1 Qlimex Qlimex2 years ago HD dont work in space NASA said :DDDDD Reply emsie76 emsie761 year ago +Qlimex well discovery and rover are in space. On Mars with hd cameras. Reply Pete Pete2 years ago Would be cool to see one of these, but with all active satellites instead. 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Hydrogen

Hydrogen Chemical element with symbol H and atomic number 1 Also called element 1 Hydrogen is a chemical element with chemical symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard atomic weight of circa 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table. Its monatomic form is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe, constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass. Non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium, has one proton and no neutrons. The universal emergence of atomic hydrogen first occurred during the recombination epoch. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, nonmetallic, highly combustible diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2. Since hydrogen readily forms covalent compounds with most nonmetallic elements, most of the hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular forms such as water or organic compounds. Hydrogen plays a particularly important role in acid–base reactions because most acid-base reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules. In ionic compounds, hydrogen can take the form of a negative charge (i.e., anion) when it is known as a hydride, or as a positively charged (i.e., cation) species denoted by the symbol H+. The hydrogen cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, but in reality, hydrogen cations in ionic compounds are always more complex. As the only neutral atom for which the Schrödinger equation can be solved analytically, study of the energetics and bonding of the hydrogen atom has played a key role in the development of quantum mechanics. Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century by the reaction of acids on metals. In 1766–81, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize that hydrogen gas was a discrete substance, and that it produces water when burned, the property for which it was later named: in Greek, hydrogen means "water-former". Industrial production is mainly from steam reforming natural gas, and less often from more energy-intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water. Most hydrogen is used near the site of its production, the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing (e.g., hydrocracking) and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market. Hydrogen is a concern in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks.

Thailand

dutertesupporter.mema 14 hours ago · from March 21 Thurs. !~@:11 pm Grabe ang mga ka-DDS natin President Rody Duterte meets more than a thousand members of the Filipino Community living and working all over Thailand at the Royal Thai Navy Convention Hall in Bangkok on March 22, 2017. This is the last day of his official visit in Thailand where he had a meeting with Prime Minister General Prayuth Chan-o-cha and Thai’s top business groups. #DuterteThailand2017 🎥ⓒ|bentesiorna https://m.facebook.com/story.php… 5,770 Views Like Like Love Haha Wow Sad Angry CommentShare Chronological 348 348 156 shares Comments 10 of 53 View previous comments Ginalyn Ortega Shiba Ginalyn Ortega Shiba Like · Reply · 3 hrs Mae Queens Mae Queens Mahal na pangulo andito Lang Kami sa likod mo sumusoprta sau forever See Translation Like · Reply · 3 hrs · Edited Andricel Bisuna-barrameda Andricel Bisuna-barrameda Walang pagbabago.parang noong campaign period palang.dami parin supporters ni PRRD.more power Mr. President!!! See Translation Like · Reply · 3 hrs Ynnadz Oadnab Ynnadz Oadnab Image may contain: 1 person, text Like · Reply · 3 hrs Mhal Villarina Mhal Villarina we love you tatay digong See Translation Like · Reply · 2 hrs Bandiala Marissa Bandiala Marissa Super c Tatay See Translation Like · Reply · 2 hrs Diana Joseph Diana Joseph Like · Reply · 1 hr Gus Valdez Gus Valdez Anything else to prove? Like · Reply · 45 mins Cherrie Mae Salvador Hiponia Cherrie Mae Salvador Hiponia yung ibang naging presidente natin noon pag sinasalubong ng mga pinoy rally o di kaya bi no boooo ngayun si tatay pres sinasalubong ng mga pinoy na may mga ngiti sigawan may saya 😍😍😍 at inaabangan talaga ang pagdating See Translation Like · Reply · 43 mins Reshell Ole Balanoyos Reshell Ole Balanoyos Like · Reply · 37 mins Oscar del Rosario Write a comment... Choose File

How to Make Money From Your Home Without Working – 7 Ways

How to Make Money From Your Home Without Working – 7 Ways Justin Bryant0 CommentsMarch 21, 2017 In this video, you will learn how to make money from your home without even working. These 7 strategies allow you to leverage the latest and greatest startups that help you get paid quite a bit for just having an apartment or house. Enjoy the video and let me know what you think in the comments below! Here are some ways to make money from your house or apartment: 1. AirBnB This company allows you to list part or all of your home as a vacation spot as an alternative to a hotel room. You can even do tours if you want. Helpful resources: AirBnB host page What is expected of an AirBnB host AirBnB guide to making more money 2. HomeAway HomeAway is somewhat similar to AirBnB in that you can rent out your home to tourists for a length of time. This service is based on renting the entire home though. Helpful resources: HomeAway site Ebook PDF full of HomeAway tips 3. Store at my House Get paid to allow people to store stuff at your house instead of them having to rent a storage unit. Helpful resources: Store at my House website 4. JustPark Allow people to park their vehicles in your driveway in exchange for a fee you charge. Helpful resources: JustPark website 5. Rent all or part of your home out Make money by getting a paying roommate or renting all/part of your place to a tenant. Helpful resources: Tips for renting out parts of your home Craigslist 6. Let your home be used as a film set Be like the average family in Albuquerque, New Mexico that had their home used as the main house in Breaking Bad. You usually get paid thousands of dollars per day, get free hotel rooms, and get to meet actors. Helpful resources: How to rent your house for filming Examples and perks of renting for a film set 7. Let farmers. gardeners, or hunters use your land Land is something very few people have much of. If you have some acreage, you could make some good money just by letting other people use it for specific purposes. Helpful resources: A guide to leasing land to farmers and gardeners Previous videos How to Be a Successful Entrepreneur – 5 Podcast Episodes You Must Listen To How to Make Money With Apps for Android Episode 1 The 4 Hour Workweek Book Summary and Notes – 10 Lessons Learned How to Be Successful in Business by Reading 5 Books How to Build a Brand Online in 2017 Justin Bryant I’m an entrepreneur, fitness freak, artist, car enthusiast, sports fan and self improvement addict. My goal is to help people be their best and create incredible businesses that change the world. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PPKV_OuFVlA How to Make Money From Your Home Without Working - 7 Ways Justin Bryant Justin Bryant Subscribed37,462 Add to Share More 1,385 views 64 6 ShareEmbedEmail https://youtu.be/PPKV_OuFVlA Start at: 0:01 Published on Mar 20, 2017 Learn how to make money from your home without working. Go to http://selfmadesuccess.com/make-money... for video notes, related content, tips, and helpful resources mentioned. Let's Connect! Twitter - https://twitter.com/MrJustinBryant Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/justinbryant... Google+ - https://plus.google.com/+JustinBryant... In this video, you will learn how to make money from your home without even working. These 7 strategies allow you to leverage the latest and greatest startups that help you get paid quite a bit for just having an apartment or house. Enjoy the video and let me know what you think in the comments below! Category People & Blogs License Standard YouTube License SHOW LESS COMMENTS • 13 Oscar del Rosario Add a public comment... Top comments Betsy B. Barham Betsy B. Barham20 hours ago (edited) Learn how to make minimum 100 USD Daily by Working From your home Very easiest & Genuine way to make money online Just Search google; "Justnox mega mind profit system" Reply 3 Adriana S. Roberts Adriana S. Roberts20 hours ago (edited) i am already using this method. just a awesome money making method Reply Red Vanderbilt Red Vanderbilt18 hours ago Adriana S. Roberts nice fake comment Reply 1 Curious Duck Curious Duck11 hours ago I will sub to anyone who subs to me and likes this comment!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! BTW comment done and I will sub back ASAP Reply MMO Tutorials MMO Tutorials15 hours ago Subscribe to my channel to learn more about how to make money online. Like this when done so i can return the favor! Reply DARLEY Havidson DARLEY Havidson1 day ago Don't wook at me like dat Reply oOo Miss Thang oOo oOo Miss Thang oOo1 day ago You are awesome , Justin!!! thank you for being willing to teach and share your experiences :) Reply Cecilia Elise Wallin • Entrepreneurs & Influencers Cecilia Elise Wallin • Entrepreneurs & Influencers1 day ago A very good video with a lot of great tips. :) Reply Autoplay Up next How To Make Money On Internet For Free 2017 - make $126,000 every SINGLE MONTH make money 6,293 viewsNEW 10:59 7 Weird Ways to Earn Extra Money Online Justin Bryant 15,027 views 20:00 Garden of Eden Found - Scientific Investigation - Garden Of Eden Uncovered Cosmic Brain Chilli Recommended for you 42:19 Facebook Live Q&A By Up Joseph Lim March 21, 2017 Robinson Ortega Recommended for youNEW 1:16:53 AIM Global Nigeria Pioneers Tips by Sir Adrian Del Rosario 2017 Robinson Ortega Recommended for youNEW 46:01 DISCOVERY: Oldest Quran Found Has Little Similarity To Modern Version trythinkingnow Recommended for you 14:47 The New Home Batteries. John Boyer Recommended for you 28:00 How To Make Money With Amazon 11 Different Ways Justin Bryant 17,632 views 22:05 10 Work From Home Jobs You Can Start Today 2017 Justin Bryant 498 viewsNEW 19:13 8 Work at Home Jobs That Won't Be Replaced By Tech Justin Bryant 5,464 views 31:41 How to Make Your First $1,000 Per Month Online Without Investment Justin Bryant 24,211 views 42:43 3 WAYS TO MAKE MONEY ON YOUTUBE WITHOUT ANY SUBSCRIBERS! ViralWhirl 9,601 viewsNEW 8:05 BILL GATES - NOBODY CAN STOP BITCOIN | Bitcoin Is Unstoppable Kimmy Tilley Recommended for you 9:04 How to Make Money with Instagram in LESS THAN 24 HOURS!!! GoldenGato 307,043 views 24:26 How to Make Money Online in 2017 (100% Proven) Brendan Mace 20,626 views 19:38 6 Work at Home Jobs That Are Pretty Easy 2017 Justin Bryant 170,293 views 20:57 How To Make Money Online From Home - Make Fast Money $1,000 Per Day Case 20 QuickMoneyFormula 13,359 viewsNEW 35:36 How to Make Money Without Working ThioJoe 1,548,096 views 6:28 10 Unique Internet Business Ideas for 2017 Justin Bryant Recommended for you 29:39 8 Apps That Pay You PayPal Money for Free 2017 Justin Bryant 92,526 views 18:42 SHOW MORE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PPKV_OuFVlA

On Religious Influence

Scriptural Commentary (or Inspired Babbling) Tuesday, February 21, 2017 D&C 134:9 -- On Religious Influence "We do not believe it just to mingle religious influence with civil government, whereby one religious society is fostered and another proscribed in its spiritual privileges, and the individual rights of its members, as citizens, denied." Doctrine and Covenants 134:9 There is a lot of good, interesting stuff in this section, but this verse stood out to me because it is basically saying what the First Amendment does, emphasizing the separation of church and state... the idea that we shouldn't encourage or discourage religion, or any particular religion by law. I think sometimes as religious people we forget how wise that law is, and how much it protects us, and everyone else... and perhaps we need a reminder now and then that God supports that same idea. God has never been about coercion or using undue influence to accomplish his goals. He made us free, and he isn't interested in us trying to tear down any of that freedom in his name. That would be a misrepresentation of everything that he stands for. Today, let's remember that God supports the individual rights of all people, whatever religion they belong to. Let's remember that tearing down anyone else's rights also erodes our rights, and that if we want justice for ourselves, we also have to support justice for others. It is hard to remember sometimes, because probably all of us want good things to prevail over bad things. Good people over bad people. But let's also be humble enough to remember that we don't always agree on what is good and bad, even in our families... and we *definitely* can't see into other people's hearts to know whether they are good or bad, or will become such. We can't see the consequences of our decisions the way that God can, and listening to his wisdom, and walking in the ways that he has asked, is the best way, for ourselves and for others, because God knows what is coming, and how to protect us all and bring us back to him in the end with joy and peace and love. Let's trust him over ourselves, and work to let go of our biases and our stubbornness, and see what God has in store by walking in his way, and not our own. Posted by Suzanne Benner at 9:10 AM Email This BlogThis! Share to Twitter Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest 2 comments: mombennerTuesday, February 21, 2017 2:40:00 PM Loving your insight into how we need to live together as individuals and our responsibility to afford ALL our brothers and sisters the freedom to make their own choices The undue influence is so true, but we also need to remember that we can influence others through love and gentle persuasion to move in the direction of the Lord. We trust Him, and He trusts us do be gentle, loving spirits who represent His love to others. Reply Suzanne BennerTuesday, February 21, 2017 3:03:00 PM Very true. Setting a good example and persuading people to do good is awesome. I was only speaking of trying to infuse religion into government, or acting in some other power-abusive way that could harm others, rather than working in the kind, calm, positive ways that the Lord approves. Reply https://www.facebook.com/Zanbabe

BIO PHILANTHROPY THE MILSTEIN FOUNDATION VIDEOS & PICTURES PODCASTS & INTERVIEWS NEWS CONTACT Adam Milstein A PROUD ISRAELI-AMERICAN ACTIVE PHILANTHROPIST ACTIVE PHILANTHROPIST AND PRO-ISRAEL ACTIVIST adam_milsteinAdam Milstein is a co-founder of the Adam and Gila Milstein Family Foundation, where he provides charitable and philanthropic services to a wide range of organizations to strengthen the Jewish people, the State of Israel, and the U.S. - Israel relationship. Adam Milstein's philanthropic services include consulting, partnership development, and fundraising to support programs in the areas of Jewish education, Jewish continuity, and Pro-Israel advocacy. Adam Milstein's philanthropic philosophy of operation consists of three unique principles: 1. Active Philanthropy Adam Milstein, the Milstein Family Foundation and its staff invest significant time and expertise - not only financial resources - in every organization, program, and project that they support. 2. Life Path Impact Adam Milstein seeks out, funds, and develops organizations that continuously engage their target audiences through life's many stages. By creating programs tailored for childhood, adolescence, and the different phases of adulthood, organizations are able to maintain a deep and continuous connection with their target population. 3. Philanthropic Synergy Adam Milstein provides funding and guidance to assist philanthropic organizations to amplify their impact by developing programmatic partnerships and synergies with other non-profit entities working toward shared goals. LEARN MORE PHILANTHROPY iac Adam Milstein is a co-founder of the Israeli-American Council, and is the chair of its national expansion. He also sits on the Board of several organizations, including, StandWithUs, Israel on Campus Coalition, Hasbara Fellowships, Jewish Funders Network, Birthright Israel, Stand By Me and American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC) National Council. Milstein and his wife Gila are co-founders of Sifriyat Pijama B'America, which provides free monthly books in Hebrew, teaching Jewish values to more than 70 Israeli-Jewish-American families in the United States. VIEW MORE PODCASTS 11.02.2016 Yair Lapid (Part 2) 11.02.2016 Yair Lapid (Part 1) 09.16.2016 Seth Siegel 09.16.2016 Moshe Arens 07.13.2016 Gerry Schwartz 06.27.2016 John Perez 06.14.2016 Haim Saban 04.06.2016 Dennis Prager CONTACT ME Your Name * Your Email * Your Phone * Your Message * SEND MESSAGE Copyright © Adam Milstein 2015 https://twitter.com/QueenNoor Noor Al HusseinVerified account @QueenNoor faithful child of Abraham, idealistic global citizen/public servant in perpetual motion and proud mother;author:'Leap of Faith' global @KHF_NHF kinghusseinfoundation.org Joined March 2010 https://twitter.com/QueenNoor

Ways to HIDE

10 Ways to HIDE MONEY when Traveling Specific Love Creations Specific Love Creations Subscribed107,079 Add to Share More 482,033 views 5,616 732 ShareEmbedEmail https://youtu.be/is7KetXtJIQ Start at: 0:28 Published on Feb 23, 2017 10 Ways to Hide Money when Traveling When you travel for work or for vacation, it is always nice to have some extra money hidden away just incase of an emergency. In this video, I show you 10 great ways to hide your extra money for that extra peace of mind. Even though these hiding spots will not stop all thieves, most people will not have a clue you are hiding money. Hide Stuff at Home: 10 Hiding Places Already in your House #1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kjrMT... 10 Hiding Places Already in your House #2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MkkYN... You can also follow us on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/specificlove... Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/specific_lo... Other Great Videos: 10 Places to Hide a Spare Key https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EDAgY... Old Key Life Hacks - Reusing Old Keys https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K9phX... 8 Life Hacks with Steel Wool https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4QboP... Life Hacks with PVC: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list... 10 Life Hacks with Carabiners https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fKJ0P... Use of video content for personal projects is at your own risk. Your results may vary depending on type of materials, your craftsmanship, and tools at hand. We are not responsible for any damages that might occur. Music is from the YouTube Music Library Proverbs 11:13 Category Education License Standard YouTube License SHOW LESS COMMENTS • 487 Oscar del Rosario Add a public comment... Top comments Madison Holloway Madison Holloway1 week ago i got 8 minutes in and then realized i have no money Reply 253 View all 29 replies Amanda Burns Amanda Burns4 hours ago Madison Holloway on my daughters next holiday I'm going to make her find all her dosh in her suitcase 😂 this way i'll no she stays sobber lol Reply 1 Yash Jain Yash Jain36 minutes ago I've use https://twitter.com/ab8354cb09a2b2cfb/status/822770372575563776 and I've gone from 207lbs to 215lbs. ppprettyyy clean muscle, good dieeeeting lifting 3 days a weeeeek. I'm a continued ccccustomeer. 3rd bottle Reply GHOST ANGEL GHOST ANGEL1 week ago How to stash drugs tutorial lol Reply 102 View all 9 replies Latiesha Brown Latiesha Brown1 day ago GHOST ANGEL that's the first thing that came to my mind Reply 7 Jorgy Porgy Jorgy Porgy10 hours ago GHOST ANGEL lol Reply cyberi4a cyberi4a2 weeks ago I liked the hairbrush one as it looked like you could put a not of bills inside. Food/gum type items I wouldn't use as a thief could just take the whole thing to eat on the run and find your money. Reply 62 View all 11 replies Christopher Christian Christopher Christian16 hours ago cyberi4a. lol to funny Reply 1 Dave Fiasconaro Dave Fiasconaro1 hour ago cyberi4a That's an awful lot of work for a dollar 👎👎👎👎👎👎👎 Reply Blanca W Blanca W3 days ago My grandmother used to hide money like this. We never knew it until she died and then started finding cash in the oddest places. Then we ended up having to go through every single thing when we were cleaning out her house. It took a year and a half of free time just to go through everything so meticulously. Ended up finding many thousands worth of hidden money but it was a major job and we inevitably must have missed some. If I get to be this way I plan to leave a treasure map along with my will so my children don't have to go through all that hunting. Read more Reply 40 View all 4 replies christo792 christo7924 hours ago Did you look inside her snatch? She probably had lots of money in there. Reply Dave Fiasconaro Dave Fiasconaro1 hour ago Orelia Clarke What a Looser! Reply Cola Pop Ice 123 Cola Pop Ice 1232 weeks ago Why do you hide all your money? Reply 37 View all 29 replies Cola Pop Ice 123 Cola Pop Ice 12358 minutes ago +Guitarzanman I have a good idea: put your money in your wallet. Reply TheseusTitan TheseusTitan4 days ago My concern about the idea with the soap is you could be charged with laundering money - haaaaa. Good video, thanx! Reply 65 S.A. Hogan S.A. Hogan1 day ago Cute! Reply 2 Pam Semones Pam Semones15 hours ago TheseusTitan funny..... Reply 1 Zesty Sauze Zesty Sauze1 week ago I wanna visit this guy's house and check his shoe and ask if i can go to the bathroom and check the tootpaste. Reply 38 View all 4 replies Christopher Christian Christopher Christian16 hours ago Zesty Sauze lol to funny Reply henrycems henrycems2 weeks ago Great ideas. You could do the soap one with a candle that you don't intend to burn. Reply 26 View all 4 replies Pam redg Pam redg2 hours ago Henrycems...omgosh !! I love your hilarious comment !!1 yes, you can bet his family and friends will enjoy the challenge.... it's even better than an Easter egg hunt. Reply Canadian Cutting Edge Canadian Cutting Edge4 days ago Just make sure you tell your spouse or anyone who lives with you not to toss out that "dirty" diaper. Reply 23 View all 6 replies Pamela Joy Fredericks Pamela Joy Fredericks1 day ago Brian Trend fear tactic. nobody wants to touch poopy diaper. Reply 3 Samuel Bitok Samuel Bitok23 hours ago Canadian Cutting Edge that is my fear Reply LestatAlmighty LestatAlmighty2 weeks ago hmmm...A nice clean hole to shove stuff inside....I'm sure I'm not the first to comment this.... Reply 19 imakememes foraliving imakememes foraliving1 day ago LestatAlmighty. 😁 Reply spinaway spinaway3 days ago i got robbed and they stole my babies diapers, my toothpaste and my deck of cards, also they said you have no hair so they took my hairbrush. Reply 13 View all 6 replies Farooq Sami Farooq Sami3 hours ago Those robers must saw this video :) Reply Pam redg Pam redg2 hours ago LOL !!1 yeah, let's try to explain that on a Police report and to our Insurance Company. Reply Aaron maust Aaron maust2 weeks ago I use a neon creyola Cran box and wrap a hundred around my green crayon Reply 14 View all 2 replies XxItzArianaGrandexX MSP XxItzArianaGrandexX MSP1 day ago whats a creyola cran? Reply 1 T C T C4 days ago I did this and forget and gave a $100 piece of gum to a stranger!!! Not really. ...lol Read more Reply 17 JIMMY TATE JIMMY TATE6 days ago I jput it in my butt and tell everyone about it....never been robbed and my friends don't try to borrow any. coins are a problem though Reply 16 View all 5 replies B Jones B Jones1 day ago word.coins, toofbrush,passport... Reply BraydonBriggsVlogs BraydonBriggsVlogs1 week ago Let me help a little bit, or you can invest about $100 and take a CCW class at your local gun range to earn yourself a nice piece of paper that says you may shoot the hell outta someone if they touch your shit or invade your space! This will also keep your family safe while giving you extra piece at mind! Have a wonderful day and don't forget to like and subscribe. :) Read more Reply 16 View all 7 replies Fazehaze Games Fazehaze Games2 days ago BraydonBriggsVlogs hell yes me in a nutshell Reply Phil M Phil M5 hours ago Errrr....I don't think you got the gist of the CCW training. I think perhaps YOU should remove the cartridges from your revolver and fill the chambers with your money. We'd all be safer. Reply A cow Cow A cow Cow3 days ago WARNING: The pen one is slightly dangerous, if the ink breaks your money is ruined Like so other people can see this Read more Reply 20 Ellen Tuton Ellen Tuton2 days ago ink is removable Reply Mud Puddle Mud Puddle5 days ago I hollowed out my femur. I hide hair care products and other valuable items there. Reply 15 View all 3 replies B Jones B Jones1 day ago .i lurve u. Reply 1 Mud Puddle Mud Puddle23 hours ago Its good to be lurved! Reply 1 Tommy Truth Tommy Truth6 days ago I hope no thieves watch this one. Reply 10 M R M R23 hours ago Or drug cartels. Reply 1 sledge hammerwood better the others flat sledge hammerwood better the others flat5 hours ago M R too late been hiding stuff that way before u tube was invented reformed crimimal Reply Philip Hall Philip Hall4 days ago or you could put your money in your pocket Reply 9 View all 4 replies me musically and more me musically and more3 days ago Philip Hall XD Reply posh mama posh mama2 days ago Philip Hall . video says when travelling! cos pickpockets pick your pocket! Reply 2 Bargain Boondocker Bargain Boondocker2 weeks ago There were some really great ideas in there. The shoe one had me worried. If you're wearing name brand expensive shoes someone may want to steal those. I've heard of it happening. Thanks for the ideas. Reply 8 Specific Love Creations Specific Love Creations2 weeks ago Very true, I forgot to mention that it was an old pair of shoes. 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WonderfulWorksInventions

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Trump electrifies CPAC

Fox News Like This Page · February 25 · At #CPAC2017: President Donald J. Trump took on globalism, saying he's representing the United States, not the "globe." http://fxn.ws/2lDlAe5 Like Like Love Haha Wow Sad Angry CommentShare Top Comments 108K 108K 18,154 shares 2.8K Comments Comments Tom Ekes Tom Ekes One nation under God. Proud to have voted for him because he means business and says what he wants to say regardless of the backlash he might receive. Like · Reply · 1,375 · February 25 at 6:07pm · Edited 255 Replies Eddie Benor Eddie Benor The only president that fights for people unlike others who fought for elites only. So appreciate him instead of degrading him! Like · Reply · 1,101 · February 25 at 6:03pm 148 Replies Andy Williams Andy Williams That's the man I voted for! Go Trump! Make America Great Again! Like · Reply · 843 · February 25 at 6:00pm 68 Replies Kim Lizana Draughn Kim Lizana Draughn Thank you President Trump, for standing up for our country. The UN has been pushing ,"one world" and in the end that is going to happen. The Bible talks in the Revelations about a one world government, where one leader will "rule" the world....See More Like · Reply · 430 · February 25 at 6:32pm · Edited 64 Replies Jason Coleman Jason Coleman Still mystifies me what issue the Dems & Liberals have with a President doing what he promised throughout his Campaign & was voted in to do, I mean fancy that 😱😏 Like · Reply · 617 · February 25 at 6:08pm · Edited 127 Replies Stanley Smith Stanley Smith President Trump is totally correct! USA is a sovereign nation! Freedom and independence paid for by all American blood sweat and tears....See More Like · Reply · 247 · February 25 at 6:57pm · Edited 24 Replies 6 of 2,893 View more comments Oscar del Rosario Write a comment... http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/02/24/president-trump-electrifies-cpac-crowd-bashing-media-and-vowing-aggressive-agenda.html WHITE HOUSE President Trump electrifies CPAC crowd, bashing media and vowing aggressive agenda Barnini Chakraborty By Barnini Chakraborty Published February 24, 2017 FoxNews.com Facebook Twitter livefyre Email Print NOW PLAYING Trump at CPAC: Fake news is the enemy of the people President Trump made a historic return Friday to the Conservative Political Action Conference, telling the crowd, ‘You finally have a president,’ and delivering a wide-ranging speech in which he took aim at ISIS, pushed his plans to combat illegal immigration and vowed to repeal and replace ObamaCare. He started with a familiar attack on the news media and went so far as to say reporters “shouldn’t be allowed to use sources unless they use somebody’s name.” "Let them say it to my face. Let there be no more sources," Trump said, though some of his administration officials recently have held briefings where they insisted no names be used. THE WEEK IN PICTURES “You finally have a president. It took you a long time. It’s patriots like you that made it happen.” - President Trump "I'm not against the media," Trump said. "I'm against the people that make up stories and make up sources." Trump moved on to defend his agenda and vow major action ahead. On immigration, Trump touted plans for a southern border wall with Mexico and said it was “way, way, way ahead of schedule.” The speech came as Republicans control Congress and the White House for the first time in a decade. Conservatives have been optimistic about the opportunity to enact big policy changes and looked to Trump to spell out his agenda. “You finally have a president,” he told the packed room at the 44th annual conference, held this year at National Harbor, Md. “It took you a long time. It’s patriots like you that made it happen.” In addition to media bashing, Trump's characteristically muscular speech included a defense of his crackdown on illegal immigration. "We're getting the bad ones out," he said, explaining that the Department of Homeland Security is prioritizing deportation of illegal immigrant criminals. He repeated his pledge to repeal and replace ObamaCare, an effort that seems stalled in Congress, and touted his effort to get key oil pipelines back on track. "We're checking off the promises we made to the people of the United States," Trump thundered. Trump drew raucous applause when he vowed to rebuild the U.S. military and spoke of putting America first, a familiar theme from his campaign. "I'm not representing the globe," Trump said. "I'm representing your country." The speech ended with the campaign theme song, "You Can't Always Get What You Want," the Rolling Stones early 1970s hit played at Trump rallies. The president’s speech at CPAC also served as a prelude to his first State of the Union-style speech to Congress Tuesday night. On Thursday night, Vice President Mike Pence as well as key White House advisers spoke at the annual gathering. “We conservatives have an opportunity to that only comes around every few generations,” Pence told a pumped-up crowd. “My friends, this is our time.” White House chief strategist Stephen Bannon and White House Chief of Staff Reince Priebus shared the CPAC stage in the afternoon. The two top White House aides praised one another, bashed the press and laid the groundwork for Trump’s Friday speech. Also making a CPAC appearance was White House Counselor Kellyanne Conway who teased Trump’s appearance: “Tomorrow it will be TPAC when (Trump’s) here.” The conference, which is hosted by the American Conservative Union, began in 1974 and has since grown into a four-day- event. A closely watched straw poll will be conducted Saturday, the last day. Trump's appearance Friday marks the fourth visit by a sitting president. Trump made his first speech at CPAC in 2011. At the time, he floated the possibility of a 2012 presidential run – a nomination that was won by former Massachusetts Gov. Mitt Romney. He returned in 2015 and was booed after telling the crowd he wanted to use U.S. ground troops to fight ISIS. Last year, Trump was scheduled to speak at the conservative confab but cancelled at the last minute, saying he would campaign in Kansas and Florida instead. At the time, the American Conservative Union criticized the move and said his decision sent “a clear message to grassroots conservatives.”http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/02/24/president-trump-electrifies-cpac-crowd-bashing-media-and-vowing-aggressive-agenda.html

JUSTICE, PEACE AND JOY IN THE HOLY SPIRIT

HISPANICS, LATINOS, MEXICANS FOR TRUMP.

The natural forest types of the Philippines

Country report on forest invasive species in the Philippines N.T. Baguinon, M.O. Quimado and G.J. Francisco University of the Philippines, Los Baños Forest Management Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) The natural forest types of the Philippines The types of forests in the Philippines were first enumerated by Whitford (1911) who recognized mangrove, beach, dipterocarp, molave, pine, montane and mossy forest types. The Palawan Botanical Expedition by Hilleshog AB (1984) recognized within Palawan many types of vegetation, for example, ultramafic and ultrabasic forests, karst limestone forests, riverine forests, semi-evergreen dipterocarp forests, evergreen dipterocarp forests and lake-margin forests. There could be more actual forest types than the number already published. Stereotyping a continuum of unique forest ecosystems into just a few lists may not render justice to the wonders of evolution and the complex Philippine bio-geological history. However, the latest classification of Philippine ecosystem diversity types in the terrestrial setting (DENR-NBSAP 1997) are the following: (1) lowland evergreen rain forest, (2) lower montane forest, (3) upper montane forest, (4) subalpine forest, (5) pine forest, (6) forest over limestone, (7) forest over ultrabasic soils, (8) semi-deciduous forest, and (9) beach forest. The lowland evergreen rain forests are located on volcanic soils with even distribution of rainfall and correspond with Whitford’s dipterocarp forests excluding the apitong-lauan subtype, which corresponds with semi-deciduous forest. The importance of the members of the Dipterocarpaceae is most notable in lowland evergreen rain forests (Newman et al, 1996). Beyond 1000 metres in altitude, lower montane forests are encountered. In these forests, Fagaceae (the family of oaks) increase in number of species, as do species in families such as Araliaceae, Staphyleaceae, and Lauraceae. Many tree ferns, epiphytes such as orchids, ferns and allies, increase in importance. As elevation is gained, upper montane forest begins to occur (at about 2000 metres). Members of the Ericaceae (e.g. Rhododendron quadrasianum, Vaccinium myrtoides, etc.), Myrtaceae (such as Leptospermum flavescens) and Theaceae (such as Eurya, Cleyera, Schima, Adinandra, and Camellia species) families are encountered (Merrill and Merritt, 1910). In regions with seasonal monsoon climates, the montane forests when disturbed into a gap by fire is readily succeeded by disclimax vegetation dominated by benguet pine (Pinus insularis) (Kowal, 1975). In Mindoro Island, only tapulau pine forest exists. Pine forests are perpetuated by fire and therefore also known as fire disclimaxes. In limestone forests, below 1000 metres, the keystone species are molave (Vitex parviflora), lingo-lingo (Viticipremna philippinensis), alagao (Premna odorata), and batete (Kingiodendron alternifolium). Beach forests above the intertidal zone vary depending upon the substrate (Merrill, 1945). Beach forests exist as Casuarina subtype or Barringtonia subtype. In one extreme, on sand dunes, pure stands of agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia) would be characteristic. At the other extreme, on rocky shores, is mixed vegetation of the Barringtonia subtype. Forests on ultrabasic soils (Hilleshog Forestry AB, 1984) are not as dense and tall as the mixed dipterocarp forests, simply because they develop on unhealthy serpentine and basic soils. This type of forest features hardwoods such as mancono (Xanthostemon verdugonianum), bagoadlau (X. philippinensis), malabayabas (Tristaniopsis decorticata), Brackenridgea palustris, mountain agoho (Gymnostoma rumphiana), and Scaevola micrantha. The introduction of exotic species Merrill’s "Enumeration of Philippine flowering plants" (1921-26) and subsequent revisions in the "Flora Malesiana" (1954-present) are good references to determine which species are indigenous and exotic (Rojo, 1999). Exotic species are indicated with asterisks. Prehistoric introduction of trees (probably by Malayo-Polynesian settlers) were first noted and may have included common agricultural tree crops such as the katurai (*Sesbania grandiflora), malunggai (*Moringa oleifera), mango (*Mangifera indica), nangka (*Artocarpus heterophyllus), breadfruit (*A. altilis), santol (*Sandoricum koetjape), rambutan (*Nephelium lappaceum), karamai (*Cicca (Phyllanthus) acida), bignai (*Antidesma bunius), kamias (*Averrhoa bilimbi), balimbing (*A. carambola), duhat (*Syzygium jambolana) and other *Syzygium spp., kawayan kiling (*Bambusa vulgaris), kawayan tinik (*B. spinosa) and many others. Most of these are Indo-Malayan in origin. A few escaped into the wild like the bignai, duhat and santol. However, these have not grown and established themselves as persistent gregarious stands. The Spanish regime, through the Acapulco trade, brought additional exotic tree species, mostly agricultural crops such as the *Anona spp. (atis, cherimoya, guyabano, anonas), biriba (*Rollinia deliciosa), zapote (*Diospyros digyna), cacao (*Theobroma cacao), siniguelas (*Spondias purpurea), chico (*Manilkara sapota), tiesa (*Pouteria campechiana), cashew (*Anacardium occidentale), avocado (*Persea americana), kamatchile (*Pithecellobium dulce) and datiles (*Muntingia calabura). Woody trees such as the monkey-pod tree (*Samanea saman), *ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), kakawate (*Gliricidia sepium) and kalachuchi (*Plumiera rubra) were also introduced. Coffee (*Coffea spp.) was introduced by the Spanish from Africa. Some of these escaped into the field, for example ipil-ipil, datiles, and kamatchile. Of the tropical American exotic trees, ipil-ipil may be singled-out as bio-invasive, as the species forms pure stands in open areas. Kamatchile and datiles have been dispersed but their numbers are limited, compared with ipil-ipil. During the American regime, more exotic tree species found their way to the Philippines as Caguioa (1953) recounts: "After the Spanish-American war, plants have been introduced into the Philippines generally by exchange between the governments of foreign countries and the Philippine Government, through the Bureau of Forestry and Bureau of Plant Industry and by purchase from foreign countries by private citizens. Introduced plants came into the Philippines during the Spanish regime, the Philippines introduced plant materials from Central American countries through missionaries and others who came to the Philippines by way of galleon from Mexico to the Orient, and from the neighbouring countries or islands through traders and travellers who came to visit this country by water transportation. During the first half of the present century, many countries in both the western and the eastern hemisphere have exchanged planting materials with the Philippines." Exotic species were added as a result of the agricultural and forestry schools that were opened (Buenaventura, 1958). In 1910, the School of Forestry site consisted of grass and brush at the base of Mount Makiling. Laguna, Luzon and American administrators initiated the reforestation of the school grounds mainly by planting indigenous tree species, as well as the tropical American species mahogany (*Swietenia spp.), rubber (*Hevea brasiliensis), and ipil-ipil (*Leucaena leucocephala). Then other exotics followed such as kakawate, palosanto (*Triplaris cumingiana), Anchoan dilaw (*Cassia spectabilis), golden shower (*C. fistula), and teak (*Tectona grandis). Note that they also introduced dipterocarps from other parts of the country to enrich the native Makiling dipterocarps, namely, white lauan (Shorea contorta), bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan) and guijo (Shorea guiso) (Brown, 1919). African tulip (*Spathodea campanulata) was introduced in 1925 to the Forestry School campus (Anonymous, 1930) and it has since spread deep in natural stands. Ponce (1933) documented the introduction of the American mahoganies. Small leaf mahogany (*Swietenia mahogani) was introduced as early as 1911, and by batches in 1913, 1914, 1920 and 1922, from tropical America. Large leaf mahogany (*S. macrophylla) was first planted in Manila in 1907, then at the Forestry School at Mt. Makiling in 1913. Lizardo (1960) reviewed the introduction of Eucalyptus in the Philippines. Spanish friars introduced (*Eucalyptus globulus) at Alcala, Cagayan as early as 1851 and in 1939, the first trial plantings for *E. robusta were initiated. Other plantings were *E. rostrata in 1918, *E. tereticornis 1910, *E. citriodora 1936, *E. viminalis 1918, *E. pulverulenta 1916, and *E. saligna 1947. The paper mulberry (*Broussonetia papyrifera) was introduced in 1935 to augment bast fibre-producing tree crops at the Makiling Forestry School campus and - as did coronitas (*Lantana camara) from Hawaii - escaped to become serious pests. Both species invade young secondary forests, thickets, orchards and farms. These two species and mahogany have spread throughout the Philippine archipelago. Post-war introduction of exotics continues and planting them has almost become synonymous with reforestation. Yemane (*Gmelina arborea) was introduced in 1960 and planted in Minglanilla, Cebu by the Bureau of Forestry (Binua and Arias, 1966). Mangium (*Acacia mangium) was introduced in 1960 from Sabah. The Philippines Forestry Statistics (1984) record that out of a total 52 487 seedlings produced by the Philippines Government forest agency, 82.4 percent (43 234 seedlings) of seedlings were exotics. These were distributed across giant ipil-ipil (41 percent), large leaf mahogany (33 percent), yemane (17 percent), teak (4 percent), and others (5 percent). Seedlings of indigenous tree species contributed 17.6 percent. Current foresters’ notion of reforestation Based on the forest definition by American mentors as artificial or natural, Tamesis and Sulit (1937) define "reforestation" as the restoration of an area to forest either by artificial or natural means and "afforestation" applies to the planting of a forest on land that has not previously borne forest. They mention planting exotics in Bukidnon including chinchona, large leaf mahogany, *Araucaria bidwillii, *Pinus massoniana, Anchoan dilaw, *Adenanthera microsperma, *Thuja orientalis, black wattle (*Acacia decurrens), and *Cryptomeria japonica. In Baguio, *Eucalyptus spp. and Alder (*Alnus spp.) were planted. Tamesis and Sulit cite that good reforestation species are of: economic value; rapid growth for short cutting cycle; fire and other damage causes are resisted by species; and easy to grow and propagate. There is also the mindset among foresters that artificial forests are as ecological as the natural forest they replace. For example, Domingo (1983) wrote during the First ASEAN Congress, "... when we convert a dipterocarp forest to pulpwood plantation, what we are doing is just transferring the jungle regrowth onto a tree species of our choice for pulpwood. Substituting the economically unnecessary but ecologically necessary jungle regrowth with an economically important pulpwood plantation does not change, it might even enhance, the normal ecological pattern. The same ecological benefits that the jungle regrowth provides can be provided by the plantation...." In short, this goes in line with most foresters’ pragmatism that if the natural forest is gone or nearly gone, enrichment planting with fast-growing commercial exotic tree species is better than restoring natural forests for two reasons. One, because a return of investment at the earliest possible time is provided by the artificial forest, and two, artificial forests also provide the same environmental services as natural forests, particularly, on watershed function and carbon-sequestration. Other foresters also claim that analogue forests and agroforest zones can also be as rich in floral diversity as or even richer than are natural forest ecosystems. Thus, during the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC) Symposium-Workshop on Facing the Challenge of Sustaining Biodiversity Conservation in Mt. Makiling, Gruezo (2000) reports "...Comparison of floral diversity in these four zones (Mossy forest zone, Dipterocarp mid-montane forest zone, Grassland zone and Agroforestry Zone) reveals that the agroforestry zone had the highest diversity value using the Shannon-Weiner formula, with H’ = 4.2869 followed by the dipterocarp-mid-montane forest zone, H’ = 3.8913, ...". Man can cram many exotic crops including their exotic weeds in one place, then make statements to the effect that agro-ecosystems are more diverse than natural forest ecosystems. Bio-invasive species and natural forests As far back as the pre-war period, exotic trees have been used in reforestation. Projects of the Reforestation Administration used exotic species as showcases, e.g. reforestation at Minglanilla in Cebu, the Nasiping Reforestation Project in Cagayan, Paraiso reforestation in Ilocos Norte, Canlaon reforestation in Negros, and Impalutao reforestation in Bukidnon. The reforestation projects of the Bureau of Forestry were well spread throughout the archipelago. Seedlings from these projects found their way into national parks and for this reason mahogany can be found in most of the country’s nature parks. However, no studies have yet been done on the rate of bio-invasion of these nature reserves and parks. The planting of exotics in the Integrated Protected Area System (IPAS) of the Philippines has now been prohibited under the present DENR’s PAWB (Park and Wildlife Bureau). No definite policies are in place yet on what to do with mature exotic trees, should they become bio-invasive. This issue is now being seriously considered by the College of Forestry and Natural Resources, for the Makiling Forest reserve. Because there was a law requiring replanting of logged-over dipterocarp forests during the 1960s to 1980s, many timberlands have had been reforested with exotic trees, among them mahogany, yemane, mangium, bagras and teak. Of these tree species, only mahogany is a potential bio-invasive species in the logged-over forest and is threatening to out compete the indigenous dipterocarp and non-dipterocarp tree species. Mahogany is successful at invading natural forests due to the following attributes of the species. The fruit of mahogany is a capsule and contains an average of 62 winged seeds (Anonymous, 1930). The number of seeds a mahogany mother tree can disperse is considerable. Assuming 50 capsules, 3000 seeds can be blown away from the mother tree. The seeds can be blown some 20 to 40 meters from the mother tree. The seeds, being recalcitrant, germinate in less than a month. Mahogany seeds contain food reserves and germinate hypogeal. This means that even if the initial light is relatively poor, the young mahogany plant develops even without initial photosynthesis. The first young leaves of mahogany are scale leaves and not green. True photosynthetic leaves come later and are adapted to sun-flecked shade and partial shade. Hardened mahogany seedlings can tolerate open fields as long as soil moisture is not limiting. The leaves of mahogany are rarely attacked by herbivores. Thus, a mahogany plantation is like a "green desert" to wildlife. Dipterocarps fruit and seed irregularly in intervals of four to five years and therefore stand no chance competing with mahogany. When mother trees shed their leaves during the months of February, they form a thick litter mat. Dry mahogany leaves are red and can be very rich in tannin. The leaves are intact during the whole length of the dry season. This litter mat could be one reason why very few seedlings are recruited under the mahogany plantation, including their own seedlings. Dispersed recalcitrant seeds rest on top of the litter mat instead of reaching the moist soil and hence die due to desiccation. They may also be allelopathic (Thinley, 2002). Extracts from the leaves of mahogany were shown to retard the growth of narra (Pterocarpus indicus) test seedlings. Recruits increase away from the mahogany plantation and this increase is proportional to the competition offered by mahogany wildlings (Alvarez, 2001; Castillo, 2001). The importance of mahogany seedlings is negatively correlated with the Shannon-Weiner Diversity Indices of quadrats positioned from the mahogany plantation and away from it. In other words, diversity of the quadrats decreases as the importance of mahogany increases. While mahogany invades regenerating dipterocarp forests and may give the dipterocarps a hard time in competition, the paper mulberry (*Broussonetia papyrifera) also gives indigenous gap and pioneer tree species very keen competition. Ocular observation shows that where paper mulberry forms pure stand thickets, the usual indigenous pioneer tree species such as anabiong (Trema orientalis), binunga (Macaranga tanarius), alim (Melanolepis multiglandulosus), banato (Mallotus philippinensis), tibig (Ficus nota), hauili (F. septica), isis (F. ulmifolia), sablot (Litsea sebifera), paguringon (Cratoxylon sumatranum), and malapapaya (Polyscias nodosa) are not present. The combination of mahogany and paper mulberry is therefore a big blow for the ecological succession of the landscape, at the gap and building-up phases. This can be a serious problem for Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) practitioners. Other important bio-invasive species in the general landscape of rural Philippine settings are hagonoy (*Chromolaena odorata) and coronitas (*Lantana camara). These two species retard the succession process in open grasslands, where they can become very gregarious, thus offering no ground for indigenous gap species. Where paper mulberry cannot establish, the equally important bio-invasive species ipil-ipil (*Leucaena leucocephala) can usurp steep bare slopes and form pure stands of ipil-ipil. At the back of beaches and along beaches, two exotic mimosoid legumes also form gregarious thickets of aroma (*Acacia farnesiana) and mesquite aroma (*Prosopis juliflorae), respectively. In the gaps of lower and upper montane forests of the Cordillera Highlands, the prolific and gregarious alders *Alnus maritima and *A. nepalensis also tend to form pure stands and these could also potentially be bio-invasive species in these parts of the country. Recommendations Tree plantations and natural forest stands should be distant and dispersal of bio-invasive propagules should be avoided. Bio-invasive species that have very long dispersal abilities and with allelopathic properties should be checked and banned in all successional stages of natural forests, for example paper mulberry and mahogany. Dispersal radius of suspect bio-invasive exotic tree species should be studied, so that plantations that are safe from becoming sources of bio-invasive species may be designed. References Agroforestry Research Center - FORI. 1980. Introducing a fast-growing Acacia species. Canopy, 6(8): 1. Alvarez E.M. 2001. Monitoring the spread of large leaf mahogany (*Swietenia macrophylla King) in lowland dipterocarp forest in Mt. Makiling, Laguna. Unpublished B.S. Forestry Thesis, UPLB-CFNR. Anonymous. 1930. Notes and jottings from the Bureau of Forestry Plantations. Makiling Echo, January 23, 1930. Baguinon N.T. 2000. ENRM 202: Forest and terrestrial ecosystems. Published by U.P. Open University. 409pp. Bakuzis E.V. 1969. Forestry viewed in an ecosystem perspective. In: The Ecosystem Concept in Natural Resource Management. Ed. by. George M. Van Dyne. pp. 189-254. Arias S.C. and Binua T.M. 1966. Exotic Gmelina: another fast-grower. Reforestation Monthly 6(1 and 2): 3. Brown W.H. 1919. Vegetation of Philippine mountains. Manila: Bureau of Printing. Caguioa V. 1953. Planting exotic species in the Philippines. Soil resources and forestry, Pacific science congress, vol. 5, p. 499-532. Castillo R.R. 2001. Vegetation analysis of undergrowth plants in lowland forest of Mt. Makiling as a tool in assessing the advance and spread of big leaf mahogany (*Swietenia macrophylla King). Unpublished B.S. Forestry Thesis, UPLB-CFNR. DENR-NBSAP. 1997. Philippine biodiversity: An assessment and plan of action. Bookmark, Inc., Makati City, 298 p. Domingo I.L. 1983. Industrial Pulpwood Plantations. First Asean Forestry Congress, 10-15 October 1983, PICC, Manila, Philippines. P. 18. Gruezo W.S. 2000. Floral Diversity Profile of Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve, Luzon, Philippines. ASEAN Regional Conference on Biodiversity Conservation, 20-21 September 2000, College of Forestry and Natural Resources, U.P. at Los Baños, College, Laguna, PHILIPPINES. p. 3. Hilleshog Forestry AB. 1984. The Palawan botanical expedition, final report. IPAS Final Report, June 1, 1992. Jacobs M. 1975. The world on Luzon’s highest mountains. Lecture in UNESCO-MAB, BIOTROP, Bogor, Indonesia. Kowal N.E. 1975. Shifting cultivation, fire, and pine forest in the Cordillera Central, Luzon, Philippines. Lecture in UNESCO-MAB, BIOTROP, Bogor, Indonesia. Lizardo L. 1960. Results of trial planting of Eucalyptus in the Philippines. The Philippine Journal of Forestry. 16(1-2): 31. Merrill E.D. 1921-26. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants. Manila: Bureau of Science, vol. 4. Merrill E.D. 1945. Plant life of the Pacific world. New York: MacMillan Co., 295 pp. Merrill E.D. and Merritt M.L. 1910. Flora of Mount Pulog. Philippine Journal of Science 5(4-5): 287-403. Newman M.F., Burgess P.F. and Whitmore T.C. 1996. Manuals of dipterocarps for foresters - Philippines. Published by Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh and CIFOR, Jakarta. 124 pp. Ponce S.S. 1933. Mahogany as a reforestation crop. The Makiling Echo 12 (1): 7. Rojo J.P. 1999. Revised lexicon of Philippine trees. Forest Products Research and Development Institute, Department of Science and Technology. 484pp. Tamesis F. and Sulit C. 1937. Reforestation and flood control. The Makiling Echo 16(2): 80-97. Thinley P. 2002. Negative interaction between large leaf mahogany (*Swietenia macrophylla King) and some indigenous tree secies in lowland forest of Mt. Makiling - allelopathy, a possible cause? Unpublished B.S. Forestry Thesis, UPLB-CFNR. Whitford H.N. 1906. The vegetation of the Lamao Forest Reserve. Philippine Journal of Science. 1(4): 373. Whitford H.N. 1911. The forests of the Philippines. Part I. Forest Types and Products. Manila: Bureau of Printing. 94pp. Status of forest invasive species in Sri Lanka N.D.R. Weerawardane and J. Dissanayake Forest Department Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Introduction Sri Lanka has a land area of about 6.5 million hectares. Sri Lanka is a small but biologically diverse country that is recognized as a biodiversity hotspot of global importance for plants. Its varied topography and tropical conditions have given rise to this high level of biodiversity. There are many plant and animal species endemic to the country. Much of the diversity is found in the wet zone located in the southwest parts of the country. Human threats to biodiversity are greatest in this part of the country, due to the dense human population. It has been noted in the past that bio-invasions can have serious negative impacts on the function of these ecosystems. The direct economic consequences are more prominent in the agricultural sector, while the indirect economic consequences will be the loss of biodiversity. The agricultural sector has suffered a lot in the past from intentional or unintentional introductions of alien pests and diseases, including weed species. However, in more recent times attention has been given to the introduction of invasive species and their impacts on biodiversity in the country. General overview of forest types in the country According to the forest cover map prepared in 1992, Sri Lanka’s closed natural forest cover was 23.9 percent of the total land area, which amounts to about 1.5 million hectares. Including sparse forests, the total natural forest cover is 30.9 percent of the land cover, which is around two million hectares. The average rate of deforestation during the past few decades, both planned and unplanned, has been around 42 000 hectares per year (Bandaratillake, 2001). The major natural forest ecosystems and their extent are presented in Table 1. Table 1: Natural forests in Sri Lanka, 1992 Forest type Total area (hectares) Percentage of total land area Bio-climatic zone Closed canopy montane 3 108 0.05 Montane zone Sub montane 68 616 1.04 Submontane zone Lowland rain 141 506 2.14 Low/mid country wet Moist monsoon 243 886 3.69 Low/mid country intermediate Dry monsoon 1 090 981 16.49 Low country dry Riverine 22 435 0.34 Low country wet and dry Mangrove 8 688 0.13 Coastal areas, lagoons Subtotal 1 579 220 23.88 Open canopy sparse 464 076 7.01 Low country dry and arid Total 2 043 296 30.89 The forests in the montane and submontane areas occur at high elevations, located in the central parts of the country. In the montane zone, the height of the canopy is low. The trees are of poor form with dense, spreading, flat-topped crowns. The forest is not of commercial value, rather it is left undisturbed, to serve as protection forest preventing soil erosion and flash flooding in the catchment areas. The genera in both zones include Syzygium, Calophylum, Gordonia, Michelia, etc. Lowland rain forests are rich in biodiversity and represent tropical rain forests that receive a well-distributed rainfall throughout the year. As a result, they develop multi-storey canopy structure with dense understorey. Climbers and epiphytes are prevalent in these forests. Common genera include Dipterocarpus, Mesua, Doona, Shorea, Campnosperma, Vitex, Wormia, Chetocarpus, Anisophyllea, etc. Moist monsoon forests are in the intermediate zone areas, which form a transition zone between the dry and the wet areas. Dry monsoon forests cover a large area of two-thirds of the country. In these forest areas, there is a pronounced moisture deficit period of about four months. Some of the timbers produced in these forests are highly priced. The major genera include Manilkara, Drypetes, Chloroxylon, Berrya, Diospyros, etc. Riverine forests are small in extent and distributed along major rivers in low lying areas. Mangrove forests are comparatively small, but play an important ecological role stabilizing the estuaries and lagoons and providing shelter and breeding grounds for fish, crustaceans and other marine life. Importance and relevance of forest invasive species issues in the country Invasive species are generally exotic or alien species having the ability to compete with and replace native species in natural habitats, thereby threatening native biological diversity. They have special characteristics that enable them to spread rapidly and aggressively and compete with native flora and fauna, to form a dense population that interferes with the natural development of biotic communities. In order to protect biodiversity in the country, Sri Lanka became a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992 and ratified it in 1994. The Ministry of Forestry and Environment was identified as the focal point for activities related to biological diversity. The introduction of alien invasive species - intentionally or unintentionally - can cause a tremendous negative impact on biodiversity in a country like Sri Lanka. A large number of species extinctions can occur through the introduction of invasive species. In addition, some invasive species can contribute to degradation of catchment areas and irrigation systems, incurring severe economic losses. Intentional introductions include deliberate introductions for use in agriculture, forestry, horticulture, fisheries, aquaculture, landscaping, zoos, pet trade, etc. Unintentional introductions include accidental introductions of species through transport, trade, travel, tourism, etc. In Sri Lanka, alien invasive species are particularly important due to following factors (IUCN, 2000): geographically separated small size and island nature of the country; developing status; greater diversity of habitats; high levels of species endemism in the southwest parts of the country; current highly threatened status of many endemic species and their habitats; and increased degradation and fragmentation of natural habitats due to development activities. As some invasions have the potential to become irreversible, the prevention of new introductions is of primary importance, followed by the management of already established species that may pose a conservation threat. Most significant forest invasive species in the country The most significant invasive species and their mode and source of introduction, distribution and affected habitats/ecosystems are presented in Table 2 and Table 3. Table 2: Invasive fauna in forest ecosystems in Sri Lanka Species Mode/source of introduction Distribution Affected habitats/ecosystems Bubalus bubalis (Domestic/feral buffalo) Deliberate; animal husbandry Island-wide Forests Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow trout) Deliberate; sport fishery Montane zone Streams Chitala chitala (Clown knife fish) Negligence; ornamental fish trade Lowland wet zone Ponds, slow-flowing rivers, marshes Hypostomus plecostomus (Plectosomus catfish) Negligence; ornamental fish trade Lowland wet zone Ponds, slow-flowing rivers, marshes Clarias batrachus (Walking cat fish) Negligence; ornamental fish trade Lowland wet zone Marshes, streams Gambusia affinis (Mosqito fish) Deliberate; mosquito control Lowland wet zone Marshes, ditches, streams Poecilia reticulata (Guppy) Deliberate; mosquito control Lowland wet zone Marshes, ditches, streams Oreochromis mossambicus (Tilapia) Deliberate; commercial fishery Island-wide Rivers, marshes, lagoons and estuaries Table 3: Invasive flora in forest ecosystems of Sri Lanka Species Mode/source of introduction Distribution Affected habitats/ecosystems Weldelia triloba(runner) Negligence; ornamental plants Wet and intermediate zone Forest edges Mikania micrantha(wine) Negligence; ornamental plants Montane zone Montane forests Opuntia stricta(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plants Arid zone Thorn scrublands Lantana camara(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plants Island-wide Scrublands, degraded open forests Ulex europaeus(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plant Montane zone Montane forests, wet patana grasslands Eupatorium riparium(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plants Montane zone Montane forests Clidemia hirta(shrub) Unknown Lowland wet zone Rain forests Eupatorium odoratum(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plants Lowland dry and wet zone Forest edges and pathways Mikania calvescens(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plant Submontane zone Disturbed forests Dillenia sufruticosa(shrub) Negligence; horticulturists Lowland wet zone,Riparian areas Marshes, low lying areas Millingtonia hortens(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plant Southern dry and intermediate zone Disturbed forests and scrublands Prosopis juliflora(small tree) Deliberate; afforestation Arid zone Thorn scrublands Annona glabra (small tree/shrubs) Unknown Lowland wet zone Coastal lagoons, marshes Swietenia macrophylla(large tree) Deliberate; forestry/ timber Lowland wet zone Disturbed forests Leucaena leucocephala(small tree) Deliberate; fodder plant, soil rehabilitation Intermediate zone Dry mixed evergreen forests Psidium littorale(treelet) Negligence; ornamental plants Montane zone Montane forests Myroxylon balsamum(tree) Deliberate; forestry Wet and Intermediate zone Forest edges Alstonia macrophylla(tree) Deliberate; forestry Wet and Intermediate zones Secondary forests Mimosa pigra(small tree) Unknown Mid country wet and intermediate zones Wastelands, along river banks Imperata cylindrica(grass) Unknown Island-wide Disturbed forests and scrublands Panicum maximum(grass) Deliberate; fodder Island-wide Disturbed forests and scrublands Bambusa bambos(bamboo) Unknown Mid country areas Disturbed forests and scrublands Ochlandra stridula(bamboo) Unknown Wet zone Disturbed forests Acrostichum aureum(fern) Unknown Lagoon areas Mangrove forests Najas marina(submerged plant) Unknown Coastal areas Lagoons and estuaries Source: Bambaradeniya et al. (1999) and authors’ own observations Biology and life history of the most significant invasive species Grasses Imperata cylindrica, Graminae Imperata is a rapidly spreading, noxious perennial weed in agricultural, forest and wastelands. Once this weed colonizes the land its subsequent propagation takes place by stolons. It poses serious problems to many agricultural crops and forest seedlings in plantation establishment. It is found in most parts of the country. It grows year round and up to 1 metre in height. Propagation is by wind dispersal of seeds and by underground stem parts. Manual control is very difficult and chemical control is fairly successful. Panicum maximum (Guinea grass), Graminae Guinea grass is a ubiquitous perennial weed. It poses a major problem in agriculture and forestry plantation establishment. It has spread to most parts of the country including natural ecosystems, abandoned or degraded lands, forest plantations, etc. When growth is uncontrolled, it can grow up to about 2 metres in height, shading out and out-competing natural or planted seedlings in forests and retarding their establishment and growth. Taller stands can block the access of humans and vehicles. Its faster spread, both by seeds and underground stem parts, threatens natural ecosystems by replacing native plants. In addition, it creates a fire hazard in dry periods, which can also replace natural vegetation in an area. When Guinea grass is burned it re-sprouts and grows rapidly, dominating the area. Its control is extremely difficult unless long-term control measures are taken. Cattle-grazing is somewhat effective in controlling this grass, although this does not eradicate it. Shrubs Lantana camara, Verbanaceae Lantana camara is a plant introduced to Sri Lanka in 1926 through the Royal Botanic gardens of Sri Lanka. Currently a major weed found throughout the country, it has invaded natural ecosystems particularly when open conditions are prevalent. This species is commonly found in dense stands along roadsides and abandoned lands. It is a fast-spreading, thicket-forming, perennial shrub and is somewhat shade tolerant. The weed has invaded the Udawalawe National Park, which is a leading elephant sanctuary of the island, significantly reducing the grazing lands available for the elephants. It has also spread in forest plantations and degraded natural forests interfering with natural regeneration. The spread is influenced by birds eating the fruits. Manual methods are somewhat successful in controlling this grass. Prosopis juliflora (Mesquite), Fabaceae Mesquite was first introduced to Sri Lanka in 1880 and is currently found spreading rapidly in the coastal belts of Southern and Western provinces in the country. It was introduced in the early 1950s to Southern province to improve the saline soils and as ground cover. The species has now become invasive and is a serious threat to natural habitats. This species has severely affected the Bundala National Park, the only wetland in Sri Lanka listed under the Ramsar Convention, affecting all types of vegetation, except sand dunes. It invades disturbed open areas and gradually encroaches on forest interiors. The most seriously invaded vegetation is lagoon marsh, where more than 75 percent of vegetation has been replaced by this species. Some positive aspects have also been observed in this species: it reduces erosion around lagoons, provides resting, feeding and nesting places for the birds and provides fodder for cattle, elephants, birds and monkeys in periods of drought (Seneviratne and Agama, 2001). Ulex europaeus (Gorse), Fabaceae This species was introduced to Sri Lanka in 1888 and has invaded natural ecosysytems in the hill country of Sri Lanka. It is a prickly evergreen shrub with profuse yellow flowers. It reproduces by re-sprouting from stumps and by seed. Heavy seed production and long seed viability make it troublesome to control. It is confined to high altitude areas in the country. The biodiversity of the Horton Plains, a nature reserve, has been significantly affected due to the spread of this invasive plant. Several attempts have been made by community organizations to eradicate this weed by uprooting and burning, however, these efforts have only been marginally successful. Trees Myroxylon balsamum, Fabaceae First reported in the 1920s, Myroxylon has recently been identified as colonizing natural and semi-natural habitats in some parts of the country. It has been planted as a shade tree along roadsides, as windbreaks and in plantations. It has been reported to damage the composition, structure and functions of natural ecosystems. In certain forests, it has developed into mono-specific stands, for example, in Udawattakele Nature Reserve and in some mixed mahogany forests. Specific efforts to manage and control invasive species At present, the identification and prioritization of species is done on an ad hoc basis. There is a lack of proper institutional and legal frameworks to deal with invasive species. Furthermore, there is no coordination among various government institutions that are directly or indirectly involved in dealing with alien invasive species. Currently, there are no concerted efforts to manage invasive species in Sri Lanka, except several isolated attempts to control such species. To deal with this situation, the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources organized a national workshop on Alien Invasive Species (AIS) of Sri Lanka in October 1999. Some of the important recommendations in this workshop are given below: develop a national strategy/action plan and a comprehensive set of clear guidelines to prevent the introduction, eradicate and mitigate the impacts of AIS; conduct a comprehensive capacity building and awareness programme; establish a national database, prepare a national action plan on AIS, and prepare a national weed strategy; review existing legislation and regulations on quarantine practices, plant protection and other relevant Acts and ordinances to avoid the introduction of potential invasive species; make additional funds available for research, awareness and control measures on AIS; develop technologies to enable the use of weeds for productive purposes; and appoint two separate taskforces for alien invasive flora and fauna. A follow-up workshop was held in September 2000 to make an in-depth analysis of the problem. It recommended the development of a national invasive species action plan (NISAP) to overcome the problems of AIS (Marambe, 2000). The workshop participants identified strategies to be included in the NISAP. Certain invasive species have the potential to be utilized in various ways. For example, water plants such as Eichornia, Salvinia, Hydrilla species and grasses such as Imperata and Panicum have the potential to be used as compost manure and mulch. Some are useful in making bio-gas. Species such as Colocasia and Tithonia can be used as organic manure in agricultural fields. Dillenia and Clusia species can be used as good fuelwood sources. Natural forest invasive species such as mahogany and Alstonia are good timber species and used widely in local markets. For prevention, eradication and control of alien invaders, Bambaradeniya (2000) suggested the following actions: 1. Coordination, policy and legislative initiatives: establish a coordinating body, which could oversee all aspects and issues pertaining to invasive species; address the gaps and conflicts in policies and legislation; and develop new policies as appropriate. 2. Actions to prevent future detrimental introductions: collect data on alien invasive fauna and flora in other parts of the world; train personnel to detect alien biota; adoption of strict quarantine procedures; strengthening of the current legislation; and conduct awareness-building programmes. 3. Actions to control/eradicate established invaders: initiate active scientific research on the management and control of alien invasive species; adoption of control measures, supported by scientific research; and regular monitoring of natural ecosystems infested by AIS to determine the status of invaders. Assessment of costs associated with specific pest and disease incursions In the case of forestry, no assessments have been carried out with regard to the costs of damage caused by the alien invasive species. In general, no special pest or disease invasions have been recorded in the past, except some common pests found in teak and mahogany. Forest health, quarantine and sanitary/phytosanitary regulations and procedures In Sri Lanka, the legal basis for plant protection and plant quarantine (Plant Protection Ordinance) dates as far back as 1924. Plant quarantine ordinance is enacted by the Department of Agriculture in Sri Lanka. It makes provisions against the introduction of weeds, pests and diseases and for the sanitation of plants in the country. The ordinance has been progressively amended in 1956 and 1981. However, several devastating pests have established themselves in the country during the last decade. Therefore the ordinance was totally revised in 1999 to make adequate provisions to cope with current trends in the movement of flora and fauna, as a result of the increase in international trade and traffic. The plant protection ordinance of Sri Lanka aims to prevent the introduction of exotic pests including insects, diseases and weeds, but places less emphasis on plant species that can have serious negative effects on biodiversity of natural habitats. The Fauna and Flora Act was amended in 1964, and again in 1970. It makes provisions for the establishment and maintenance of national reserves, national parks and jungle corridors. The policy on imports of seed and planting material was revised by the Department of Agriculture in 1991, and the New Seed Act was formulated in 1999. Key institutions involved with invasive species In Sri Lanka, there are several institutions involved with alien invasive species - mainly those involved with biodiversity conservation. These are listed below: 1. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources 2. Forest Department 3. Agriculture Department 4. University of Peradeniya 5. University of Sri Jayawardanepura 6. IUCN, Sri Lanka 7. National Science Foundation References Bambaradeniya C.N.B., Ekanayake S.P. and Gunawardane J. 1999. Preliminary observations on the status of alien invasive biota in natural ecosystems of Sri Lanka. Report on alien invasive species, GBF-SSEA. Colombo. IUCN Regional biodiversity programme, Asia, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Bambaradeniya C.N.B. 2000. Alien invasive species. Loris. 22: No 4, pp 3-7. FAO. 2001. Forests out of bounds: Impacts and effectiveness of logging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific. RAP publication 2001/08. FAO: Bangkok.205p. Marambe B. 1999 (Ed). Proceedings of the National Workshop on Alien Invasive Species in Sri Lanka. Ministry of Forestry and Environment: Sri Lanka. Marambe B. 2000 (Ed). Proceedings of the Symposium "Alien Invasive Species of Sri Lanka": Impacts on Ecosystems and Management. Ministry of Forestry and Environment: SriLanka. Seneviratne G.I., and Algama A.L.M.N.S. 2001. Invasive species Prosopis juliflora in the coastal regions of Hambantota district. Sri Lankan Biodiversity Review. Volume 1:79-83. Invasive species in the United States of America - 2003 David F. Thomas Forest Health Protection, USDA Forest Service Scope of problem The threat of aquatic and terrestrial invasive species[4] is one of the greatest natural resources concerns in the United States of America. Their prevention and control is operationally critical to meeting the stewardship mission of the USDA Forest Service. Thousands of species of invasive plants, invertebrates, fishes, diseases, birds, and mammals threaten ecosystem function, economic stability, and human health. Second only to direct habitat destruction, invasive species are the greatest threat to native biodiversity and native communities, nutrient cycling, hydrology, and natural fire regimes. Direct and indirect impacts of invasive species have contributed to the decline of approximately 46 percent of all listed threatened and endangered species. Public recreational opportunities and experiences have been severely degraded by rapid infestations of invasive species, in many cases hampering access, reducing recreational quality and enjoyment and decreasing the aesthetic values of public use areas. Nationally, invasive species cost Americans over US$137 billion each year, with a large portion of the impacts affecting public lands and agriculture. As the largest land managing agency within the Department of Agriculture, the Forest Service has a significant role in battling these insidious invaders and has stepped forward to work collaboratively at the local, state and national levels. The economic threats from invasive species to Forest Service timber and other production operations are significant and cannot be marginalized, and the linkage between the spread of invasive species and increased wildfire frequency and intensity has been well documented. It has been estimated that invasive plants occupy nearly 133 million acres (53.8 million hectares) of national forests and rangelands, other federal ownerships, state, tribal and private lands, and are spreading at a rate of nearly 1.7 million acres (688 000 hectares) per year. It is estimated that annual losses associated with invasive plants total US$13 billion. Insect and disease problems continue to increase and plague millions of acres of private, state, and national forests in nearly every region of the nation. Due to the broad range of pathways for invasive species to enter and become established within our nation’s forests and rangelands, the rate of new infestations is growing exponentially. Also, due to overstocking of many forested areas, the threat of infestations by insects, pathogens and invasive plants is greatly enhanced. It is estimated that 70 million acres (28.3 million hectares) of the nation’s forests are threatened by infestations of insects and disease mortality, including 21 million acres (8.5 million hectares) by western bark beetles. Compliance with the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act governing agency actions, and subsequent appeals and litigation have slowed the USDA Forest Service efforts in completing many projects designed to improve forest health. Introduction America’s forests cover 747 million acres (302 million hectares), of which 20 percent are on National Forest System lands, 49 percent are owned by non-industrial landowners, 8 percent by states, 13 percent by other federal agencies and 10 percent by industrial landowners (Figure 1). This forest land is an invaluable asset to the American people, providing water, recreation, wildlife habitat, and future timber. Maintaining the health and sustainability of natural resources is a national security issue and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service remains committed to the protection of these resources. America’s forests continue to face many catastrophic risks, including fires, invasive species and fragmentation. The Forest Service definition of a healthy, sustainable forest is: a condition wherein a forest has the capacity, across the landscape, for renewal, for recovery from a wide range of disturbances, and for retention of its ecological resiliency while meeting current and future needs of people for desired levels of values, uses, products, and services. The USDA Forest Service works collaboratively with state foresters, state departments of agriculture, and other USDA agencies, including the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) to protect America’s forests from native and introduced insects, pathogens and invasive plants. The FHP programme provides services to federal, state, tribal, and private managers of forest lands. Services include technical information and assistance in management and control of forest insects, diseases, and invasive plants; forest health monitoring; technology development; and pesticide use. This report provides a summary of current forest ecosystem health issues in America’s forests. There are three general areas of concern: non-native invasive insects and pathogens; invasive plants; and outbreaks of native insects. Non-native invasive insects and pathogens Global trade and travel are causing an unprecedented movement of animals, plants and micro-organisms across continents and oceans. All too often, these non-native species are invasive and can cause impacts that are extremely costly to both the U.S. economy and environment. When brought into new ecosystems, non-native invasive species have no natural enemies and can cause extensive damage. Nearly 50 percent of the plants and animals on the federal endangered species list have been negatively impacted by non-native invasive plants, animals, insects and microbes. These species threaten biodiversity and have caused catastrophic damage to agriculture, forest products, recreation and natural resources across North America. Examples include yellow star thistle, leafy spurge, gypsy moth, American chestnut blight and white pine blister rust. Figure 1: United States of America forest cover types In February 1999, the President issued Executive Order 13112 on Invasive Species, establishing the National Invasive Species Council. The council provides, for the first time, a coordinated effort by its 10 member departments. In October 2001, the council completed a management plan, Meeting the Invasive Species Challenge, to address the Executive Order. The plan is designed to raise public awareness and control the introduction and spread of non-native invasive pests. According to the plan, the economic cost of invasive species is estimated at US$137 billion every year. The USDA Forest Service alone spends more than US$40 million annually to control the introduction and spread of non-native species and approximately US$40 million for native species. The control efforts include refining, developing and deploying a broad array of technologies to minimize the impacts of invasive species. Technology includes remote sensing, computer modeling, mechanical treatments, bio-pesticides, biological controls and conventional pesticides. The USDA Forest Service and APHIS have started an early detection and rapid response programme to detect and promptly eradicate any new invasive species. Invasive pests are dealt with as aggressively as possible, within budget constraints, before they become well established. Selected examples of major invasive insects affecting U.S. forests Emerald ash borer The invasive emerald ash borer, a recently introduced pest, is threatening ash trees (Fraxinas spp.) in North American forests, urban plantings and shelterbelts. Critical, time-sensitive research is needed on the borer’s basic biology, ecology and management. At the present time, information is insufficient to support ongoing detection efforts and to develop effective strategies for containing the infestation, reducing beetle density, or eradicating this pest. In 2002, the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) was discovered in dead and dying ash in a 5-county region around Detroit, Michigan and in neighbouring Windsor, Ontario, Canada. In August 2003, Forest Service research confirmed its presence in Toledo, Ohio. The borer, which was introduced into Michigan about five years ago, is native to China, Korea, Japan and other Asian countries. A recent federal and state survey of ash in southwest Michigan determined that the outbreak covers over 2000 square miles (518 000 hectares). In southwest Michigan, 49.1 percent of the trees surveyed, and an estimated 5.2 million ash trees, are dead or declining. The State of Michigan has quarantined movement of ash trees and ash wood products from the five counties around Detroit to reduce the chances of transporting emerald ash borer outside the currently infested area. In Michigan, only ash has been attacked - in Asia, elm, walnut and chestnut may be attacked. The borer may have a major impact on forests across the United States of America. Ash is a major component of natural and urban forests in the east and central United States of America and urban areas in the west. The potential value loss in nine major urban centres is estimated at US$20-60 billion for 30-60 million ash trees. Losing urban ash is also critical, because ash has been the primary replacement tree for American elm. Information on biology, detection and control of emerald ash borer is limited to less than a paragraph in the Chinese literature. Currently, infestations are detected by visually examining each tree for exit holes left by emerging adults. "Control" is limited to removal and destruction of infested trees, although preliminary tests conducted this year indicate that tree injections or aphids may work. More research is necessary to obtain information on the basic biology and ecology of emerald ash borer and tools for assessing ecosystem risk, detection and control that managers must have to formulate effective management strategies. The Undersecretary of Natural Resources and Environment at USDA and Chief of the Forest Service are aware of the urgency of the problem and the need for emergency research funds to obtain vital information. APHIS and the Forest Service are planning to submit a request to the Secretary for authority to use Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) emergency funds. Scolytus schevyrewi Scolytus schevyrewi is native to eastern Russia, China and Korea. The beetle was first collected in rapid detection bark beetle pheromone traps set in Aurora, Colorado (a suburb of Denver) and Ogden, Utah, starting in late April 2003. It is considered very invasive. Dr James LeBonte, Oregon Department of Agriculture, first identified the beetle as new to the United States of America. At this time, there is no common name for this beetle and it is currently not known how damaging this insect can potentially be. APHIS has increased its detection effort for this bark beetle in Colorado, Utah, and several adjacent states. The Forest Health Protection (FHP) rapid detection group along with staff of other FHP offices in the West and the Colorado State Forest Service are assisting APHIS. In Colorado, S. schevyrewi has been collected all along the Front Range from Pueblo to Fort Collins and has been found in Durango in the southwest and in Lamar, a town in southeastern Colorado. In Utah, the bark beetle has been found in Ogden, Salt Lake City, and in eastern Utah. The beetle was found in samples of fresh wood from American elm, rock elm and Siberian elm. The biology of S. schevyrewi is similar to that of S. multistriatus. The beetle completes a generation in about two months (fresh attacks in late-April and early-May in the Denver area, and brood emergence by early-July). The USDA Forest Service expects that S. schevyrewi will complete two to three generations per year in the Denver area. The literature suggests that the beetle has a feeding period on branch junctions like that of S. multistriatus. The egg galleries are very similar between these two bark beetle species. Sudden oak death Sudden oak death (SOD) - a disease caused by Phytophthora ramorum, a newly discovered pathogen of uncertain origin - has killed thousands of trees in coastal, mixed evergreen forests and urban-wildland interfaces in California and southern Oregon. It kills a range of tree species - including coast live oak, California black oak, shreve oak, tan oak, and madrone - and infects several other plant species including rhododendron, manzanita, California bay laurel, buckeye, evergreen huckleberry, and big leaf maple. The disease degrades ecological processes and watershed functions, and lowers forest productivity. It reduces aesthetic, recreational and economic values and leaves forests susceptible to invasive plant infestations. Dead trees add fuel to an already high fire risk. There is presently insufficient knowledge of how the disease spreads and its biology. It is known to be spreading rapidly and has been found in nursery stock (particularly rhododendrons) in a few ornamental nurseries, raising concerns that it could be transported to and infect the extensive, susceptible oak forests of the Eastern United States of America. The oak-hardwood forest is the largest forest type in the United States of America. The USDA Forest Service has spent over US$5 million to research, monitor, manage, and educate the public about SOD. The USDA Forest Service is also working closely with APHIS to assist in implementing quarantine and to regulate the transportation of wood, bark, and nursery stock that might harbor the SOD pathogen. California and Oregon implemented state regulations, prior to the release of federal regulations, to prevent the spread of this disease. The states are coordinating their respective regulations with APHIS. The USDA Forest Service (through the California Oak Mortality Taskforce, a public-private coalition) is leading federal, state, and local partners in implementing effective SOD research, monitoring, management and education programmes to protect the nation’s oak forests. In 2000, USDA Forest Service provided funds to help investigate the cause of this disease. Investigations led to the discovery that the primary cause of SOD is a previously undescribed species of Phytophthora. In 2001, the USDA Forest Service provided additional funds to determine the extent and severity of SOD in oaks and other native plants in California and Oregon. The funds were also used to develop diagnostic and survey methodologies for the SOD pathogen, evaluate fungicide treatments and other management strategies, and assess the fire risk and other ecosystem effects of accelerated oak mortality. The USDA Forest Service continues to support cooperative efforts in 2002 to monitor the disease development and spread. Forest health monitoring surveys detected the pathogen in southwestern Oregon. In the autumn of 2001, the Oregon Department of Forestry attempted to eradicate the pathogen. Monitoring efforts to determine the effectiveness of the eradication treatment are underway. White pine blister rust White pine blister rust (WPBR), an introduced fungus from Asia, has decimated several species of native white pines across the American West and Canada. Native white pines are an integral part of the natural biodiversity of western forests. The ecological and economic impacts have been most acute on the two largest commercial species - western white pine and sugar pine. WPBR entered North America through the east and west coasts on European nursery stock around 1910. In the west, it quickly spread from Vancouver, British Colombia, Canada, south through the Cascades and Sierra Nevada, and east into the Rocky Mountain States of Idaho, Montana, Colorado, Wyoming, and New Mexico. The pest has also inflicted severe ecological damage in high-altitude whitebark and limber pine forests. In susceptible stands, WPBR can kill over 95 percent of mature trees, effectively altering a forest ecosystem forever. Strategies for control include: restoration of white pine forests through development and planting of white pines, which are genetically resistant to WPBR. More than 8 000 acres (3 237 hectares) of forest lands have been planted with resistant seed from seed orchards and proven resistant seed trees; restoration of white pines through deployment of silviculturally integrated practices, such as pruning the infected plantation trees and planting in low hazard areas; and extensive ongoing resistance-breeding programmes, run by the USDA Forest Service, that began in the 1950s. These breeding programmes continue to discover and develop WPBR-resistant varieties of white pines. These programmes saved the western white pine and sugar pine from extinction. In California, a total of 1 329 proven resistant seed trees have been identified, and two seed orchards have been established. In the Pacific Northwest, the resistance-breeding programme supports 40 seed orchards. The Rocky Mountain region has identified more than 3 100 trees and planted 96 255 acres (38 953 hectares) with WPBR-resistant white pine seedlings. Gypsy moth Since 1930, gypsy moth has defoliated more than 80 million acres (32 million hectares) of forests in the eastern United States of America, with most of this damage occurring during the past 20 years. A hardwood defoliator native to Europe and Asia, gypsy moth arrived in the United States of America in the 1800s, established itself in the oak forests of southern New England, and then spread south and west across 19 states. Occasionally, it appears in western forests, but has been successfully eradicated each time. Unfortunately, gypsy moth is now a permanent resident of eastern forests. During outbreaks, moth populations often outpace the few natural enemies, parasites, predators, and pathogens that attack them. The gypsy moth feeds on the delicate first flush of leaves in the spring. It prefers oaks, but it will feed on 500 species of woody plants. The attacked trees become highly susceptible to secondary attacks from other insects and pathogens, often resulting in death. The deaths alter the forest ecosystem dramatically; usually dead oaks are replaced not with more oaks, but with other species that do not produce as much mast for wildlife. In response to this pest, the USDA Forest Service adopted the following strategies: implementing programmes and providing technical and financial assistance to states and other federal agencies to suppress and slow the spread of gypsy moth in the East; and detecting and eradicating - along with APHIS, state governments, and other federal agencies - localized introductions of gypsy moth in the West. A gypsy moth virus and aerial treatments with biological and chemical insecticides conducted over 460 000 acres (186 155 hectares) in 2001 have effectively suppressed or slowed the spread of gypsy moth in nine northeastern states. The USDA Forest Service’s gypsy moth slow-the-spread programme slows the southwesterly spread of the insect by 60 percent through concentrated monitoring and by using environmentally benign mating disruption techniques. After discovering adult gypsy moths in pheromone traps in seven western states in 2000, steps were taken that eradicated the pest from these states. The USDA Forest Service and many other cooperators continue to develop new controls and delivery methods to use against this pest. Hemlock woolly adelgid The hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA) is one of the most serious forest pests threatening eastern forests. The insect defoliates eastern hemlock; trees can die within four years of infestation. Native to China and Japan and introduced to the American Northwest in the 1920s, it has spread quickly across the northern United States of America. Fortunately, western hemlock proved resistant to HWA. Unfortunately, eastern hemlock is highly susceptible to HWA. Beginning in the 1950s, the pest began a destructive march north and south through eastern forests. Today, it infests nearly half of the hemlock forests across 11 states from Massachusetts to South Carolina, and as far west as the southwest tip of West Virginia. Eastern hemlock is a pivotal species in eastern forest ecosystems. It is especially important along streams and creeks, where its shade helps control water temperatures - thereby helping to sustain aquatic ecosystems. Eastern hemlock spans the eastern United States of America from Maine, west to northern Wisconsin, and south along the Appalachians to north Georgia. The span also includes small pockets in Indiana and Mississippi. To arrest the pest’s advance, the USDA Forest Service has: implemented spray programmes on individual trees wherever practical and environmentally safe, such as in non-riparian settings; identified, developed, and released HWA-specific biological control agents; and developed an integrated plan to address the problem, as funding permits. The USDA Forest Service identified a number of pathogens and predators native to the United States of America that would attack HWA. The most effective to date is the Japanese ladybird beetle (Pseudoscymnus tsugae). This predator attacks only HWA, will feed on all stages (egg to adult) of HWA and, in sufficient numbers, will consume up to 97 percent of a HWA population. Since 1999, the USDA Forest Service has raised and released over half-a-million beetles in nine states. Additional research, development, and subsequent management actions are expected to reduce the impacts of this destructive pest. Invasive plants Thousands of invasive plant species have been introduced in the United States of America. About 1 400 are recognized as pests that pose significant threats to the biodiversity of forest and grassland ecosystems. Federal natural resource agencies list 94 species of exotic plants as noxious weeds, and many more appear on state lists. Experts estimate that well over 100 million acres (40 million hectares) are infested with invasive plants, and that as much as 20 million additional acres (8.1 million hectares) are being added every year. An estimated 3.6 million acres of National Forest System lands are infested. Many of the invasive plants are not native to the United States of America. Therefore, they have no natural enemies to limit their reproduction and spread. Although rangelands are the primary targets of many invasive plants, they are showing up everywhere - in forests, parks, preserves, wilderness areas, wildlife refuges, croplands and urban spaces. Invasive plants threaten two-thirds of the habitat of all threatened and endangered species. Two federally coordinated efforts are: the Federal Interagency Committee for the Management of Noxious and Exotic Weeds (FICMNEW) - comprised of 17 federal agencies with a common goal to develop biologically sound techniques to manage invasive plants on all lands; and the National Fire Plan - focused on rehabilitating and restoring forests and rangelands, specifically reducing the spread of noxious weeds. In 2001, the USDA Forest Service spent over US$27 million in implementing provisions of the National Fire Plan to prevent and control the spread of noxious weeds on more than 145 000 acres (58 000 hectares) of National Forest System lands. Part of these funds, US$3.5 million, was allocated to Idaho and Montana to protect approximately 93 000 acres (37 635 hectares) of state and private lands from invasive weeds. The USDA Forest Service and its cooperators are conducting extensive research and development on biological control agents for use against many invasive plants, such as mile-a-minute weed, a major problem in five northeastern states. Biological control agents are showing some success in slowing the spread of invasive plants, such as leafy spurge in the West. Selected examples of invasive plants affecting U.S. forests Leafy spurge Leafy spurge is a classic non-native, invasive plant. Arriving in North America from Eurasia in the 1890s, it now infests over 2.5 million acres (1.01 million hectares) of rangeland in southern Canada and the northern United States of America. At maturity, it can reach heights of 7 feet (2 meters). Leafy spurge can kill cattle and horses, and its sap can cause irritation to the eyes, mouths, and digestive systems of all domestic and wild grazing animals, except goats and sheep. The sap can also cause blistering, severe dermatitis and permanent blindness among humans. Seedpods explode when touched, scattering seeds up to 15 feet. It has a nutrient-storing taproot system that can reach soil depths of 20 feet (6.1 meters). Pulling the plant actually encourages it to spread. Although conventional herbicides are effective against leafy spurge, they have a limited use. Due to this limited use, the USDA Agricultural Research Service, in cooperation with APHIS, developed and evaluated integrated approaches to managing leafy spurge. Now a cooperator, the USDA Forest Service, is researching and applying several biological control agents to suppress the pest’s spread, including: grazing goats and sheep; fungal controls that kill the plant by causing root rot; and flea beetles that feed specifically on leafy spurge. Of these three, the flea beetles appear to be most effective against this pest, especially when used as an integral part of a pest management approach that includes grazing by sheep and goats and use of conventional herbicides, wherever possible. Imported from Asia, beetle populations have been established in Montana, the Dakotas, and Wyoming. Adult insects weaken the plants by attacking leaves and stems, and the larvae feed upon the roots. The USDA Forest Service and other cooperators are refining laboratory techniques so that the beetles can be mass-produced. Mile-a-minute weed Mile-a-minute weed is a prickly, annual vine that, true to its name, grows very rapidly and overpowers virtually all vegetation in its path. Originally from Asia, it first appeared on the west coast in the 1890s. In 1946, it was found in nurseries in Pennsylvania. It has spread to New York, Ohio, Maryland, New Jersey, Virginia, West Virginia, Delaware, and the District of Columbia. Seeds are spread by birds and rodents and are carried in rivers and streams. The plant is an excellent climber and easily overpowers, engulfs, and displaces much of the native flora in its path. It invades nurseries, forest openings, railroads, utility rights-of-way, roadsides, and riverbanks. It also threatens forest regeneration and recreational activities. In short, mile-a-minute weed is degrading plant diversity in North America. Controlling the spread of mile-a-minute weed presents a tremendous challenge to forest and rangeland managers. The USDA Forest Service and its cooperators are working diligently to identify and apply effective biological controls to use against this non-native pest, including: identifying over 20 varieties of fungi that attack and/or kill the weed. Additional tests on the fungi are planned; and evaluating three insects from China known to attack the weed. One of the insects in particular - a weevil - shows promise for future release. Outbreaks of native insects Although native insects don’t fall into the definition of invasives species, they are an important damaging agent in the United States of America. Examples including southern pine beetle and western bark beetles are causing significant mortality. Native insects such as bark beetles, in the West, and southern pine beetle, in the South, act as "agents of change" in coniferous forests. At the endemic level, they play a critical role in the development, aging, and rebirth of entire forests. At the landscape level, insect-caused mortality contributes to structural and mosaic diversity within ecosystems. Insects can also cause major disturbances within U.S. forests. For example, tree mortality due to bark beetle outbreaks can be extensive, affecting thousands of acres. Certain circumstances can exert uncommon stress on forests and predispose them to extraordinary insect outbreaks and damage. These circumstances include drought, overstocking, and large areas of aging forest. During the last decade, several of these circumstances have arisen simultaneously, causing extensive tree mortality. In turn, that mortality has threatened wildlife, endangered and threatened species habitat, and degraded recreational quality. The increased mortality has contributed to considerable fuel accumulation, which in turn increases the risk of catastrophic fires. In 2001, the USDA Forest Service spent about US$10 million to suppress and prevent bark beetle outbreaks. The USDA Forest Service has developed management plans to address the problem in an integrated manner and will implement these long-term plans as funding permits. Southern pine beetle Southern pine beetle (SPB) (Dendroctonus frontalis) is the most destructive forest pest in the South. Over 90 million acres (36 million hectares) of southern forests are at a moderate-to-high risk of SPB infestation. In 2001, due to a combination of a mild winter and a prolonged drought, the South experienced its most severe and prolonged SPB outbreak in history. SPB infested tens of thousands of acres and caused over US$200 million in damages. A single SPB "spot" (outbreak) can spread very quickly and cover up to 1 000 acres in one season. The situation has been especially dire in Alabama, where more than 25 000 SPB spots have been detected. In the Southern Appalachian Mountains, SPB has killed thousands of acres of pines. It has killed more than 70 percent of the pine forest habitat of the red cockaded woodpecker, a federally listed endangered species, in the Daniel Boone National Forest in southern Kentucky. In response, the USDA Forest Service has: stepped up its funding of programmes to detect, suppress, and prevent SPB infestation and restore southern pine forests; and modernized and improved computer modeling and tracking technology - including the Southern Pine Beetle Information System (SPBIS), which enables national forest field staffs to quickly log information about SPB spots and schedule, execute, and monitor treatments on those spots. In 2001, the USDA Forest Service doubled its financial commitment from the previous year and provided over US$13 million to fund SPB suppression projects on federal, state, and private lands across the South. A comprehensive plan focusing on prevention and restoration has been developed and will be implemented as funding permits. Mountain pine beetle in Colorado The native mountain pine beetle (MPB) (Dendroctonus ponderosae) kills more pines in the American West than any other bark beetle. A regional assessment conducted by USDA Forest Service staff of the forests around the wildland-urban interface near Vail found that almost all of the 34 000 acres (13 759 hectares) of lodgepole pine in the area were at moderate to high risk of MPB infestation because of tree age, density and drought. Vail, Colorado, the site of the 1999 World Alpine Ski Championships, is a world-class recreation setting. Vail also has some of the most valuable real estate in the United States of America. Among Vail’s natural treasures is the nearby White River National Forest - a large, and mostly wild, expanse of forest land. Increases in MPB infestations among Vail’s lodgepole pine forests started in 1996. Increases in MPB infestation were also detected in the forest around the Steamboat Springs area. The management of these outbreaks highlighted the importance of early communication and better understanding of science-based management methods to implement suppression and restoration practices within the wildland-urban interface. Sensitive to community concerns, while recognizing the urgent need to address the growing MPB problem, the USDA Forest Service: initiated a cooperative effort to address landowner and public concerns with the Colorado State Forest Service, the Town of Vail, and the ski area management company, Vail Associates; and devised and implemented a comprehensive plan to address the MPB problem. Since 1997, the USDA Forest Service has provided technical assistance through the Colorado State Forest Service. This assistance has helped implement prevention and suppression programmes on private property, within the White River National Forest, and on property owned by the Town of Vail. The USDA Forest Service has also conducted programmes to peel and remove bark from beetle-infested trees in isolated locations, conducted field trials to identify and deploy pheromones effective against MPB, and applied insecticides to select individual trees. In April 2002, the USDA Forest Service published a "Western bark beetle report: a plan to protect and restore Western forests", which addresses the prevention, suppression and restoration needs related to bark beetle outbreaks. The USDA Forest Service is an active member of the Bark Beetle Information Taskforce that helps residents of Routt County and surrounding areas understand the potential effects of bark beetles on national forests and state and private lands. The taskforce was formed in 1999 to provide the public with information about bark beetles and potential tree mortality so that they can make informed decisions about protecting their private property and provide meaningful input on proposed actions on public lands. Risk map A risk map for insect and disease potential within the United States of America is presented in Figure 2. It depicts where USDA Forest Service scientists predict mortality will occur over the next 15 years. Areas in dark gray will experience at least 25 percent mortality over and above normal levels (under 1 percent per year) due to the actions of insects and pathogens. It is a coarse-filtered map and, with other data, is used to plan where treatments will take place. Based upon our definition of risk, it depicts about 70 million acres (28 million hectares) at risk out of a total of 749 million acres (303 million hectares) of forest land in the United States of America. Four pests are responsible for 66 percent of the risk acres: gypsy moth in the East, southern pine beetle in the South, root disease in the Interior West and bark beetles in the West. Figure 2: Risk map Forest Service budget for 2004 The budget for combating invasive species is presented in Table 1. The figures are in thousands of dollars and include both native and non-native invasive species. Table 1: USDA Forest Service 2004 budget for combating invasive species Forest Service programmes 2001 Actual 2002 Current Estimate FY2003 President’s Budget FY2004 President’s Budget Forest and rangeland research 13 183 10 034 7 940 14 540 International programmes 575 575 575 575 State and private forestry · Forest health 20600 40 121 45 000 59 152 · Pest mgmt. emergency 12 472 0 0 0 · Emerging pest and pathogen fund 0 0 11 968 1 Total Forest Service 54 830 61 130 81 683 95 535 [4] Definition of Invasives Species: An invasive species is defined as a species that is 1) non-native to the ecosystem under consideration and 2) whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health (Executive Order 13112). http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae944e/ae944e0a.htm#TopOfPage Country report on the forestry invasive species situation in Vanuatu Ruben Bakeo and Francis Qarani Department of Forests, Department of Quarantine Introduction Invasive plant and animal species are a global concern because of their ability to interrupt biological and ecological balances and cause havoc to receiving environments. Despite the relatively long history of introduction of exotic species into the Pacific Islands, it was not until recently that efforts have been made to address them. This is true for Vanuatu, particularly with regard to invasive species that impact on forests. This report presents the forestry invasive species situation in Vanuatu. The report begins with a general overview of forest types in the country. This is followed by a list and description of the most significant forest invasive species. Following this, mention is made of the importance and relevance accorded to forest invasive species issues in Vanuatu. The final section discusses efforts to manage and control invasive species, highlighting the key institutions or bodies involved - and the laws, policies and mechanisms employed - in addressing the threat posed by these species. No attempt is made to quantify the costs involved in management and control of these species, because of the lack of information on costs. The report concludes that increased efforts need to be made to strengthen the management and control measures required. Emphasis should be on forging an integrated approach, one also backed with much-needed external assistance. Forest Types Data from a forest inventory conducted from 1990 to 1993, show that around 70 percent of Vanuatu is covered by woody vegetation, half of which is closed forests with the remainder being discontinuous shrubs, secondary forest and thickets of low trees. Vanuatu has in excess of thirty forest types. These can be put into three major groups in terms of land area occupied: thickets - occupying more than 433 000 hectares (35 percent) of Vanuatu’s land area; mid-height forests totalling of 205 307 hectares (16 percent); and low forest covering 234 089 hectares (19 percent). The remaining land area is mostly man-made vegetation or bare ground (more than 20 percent), grassland and scrub. Commercially exploitable forest is estimated to be about 35 percent of forest cover, and 10 percent of the total land area is covered by primary forests. Major areas of native forests occur on the larger islands of Santo, Malekula, Erromango and Efate, with smaller areas on other islands. There is immense pressure on some timber species on the larger islands, where harvesting is concentrated. In 1998, for instance, 92 percent of logs harvested were of just two species, Endospermum medullosum (whitewood or basswood), and Antiaris toxicaria (known in Vanuatu, as milk tree). Many landowners are not keen on reforestation or afforestation and have used their logged forest lands for alternative activities like commercial agriculture. Natural regeneration is not yet a priority. The plantation forest estate is small, with currently some 1 000 hectares planted. As part of its national forest policy (NFP) the Department of Forests (DoF) is targeting the establishment of 20 000 hectares of planted trees in the next 20 years. Many smallholders - and a few foreign investors - are actively engaged in tree planting. Negotiations are continuing with several companies, to encourage investment in commercial timber plantations. Discussions have also been held lately, about the possibility of engaging in wood-energy plantations. Among the trees encouraged for planting by the DoF are Endospermum medullosum (whitewood or basswood), Pinus caribaea (pine), Agathis macrophylla (kauri) and Santalum austro-caledonicum (sandalwood). Fruit/timber trees such as Terminalia catappa (tavoa or Indian almond) and several others are encouraged, to increase economic and other gains from forest resources. These local supply plantations are located throughout Vanuatu and range in age from12 to 25 years. The forests of Vanuatu are less complex, in terms of biodiversity, compared with forests in larger countries. Human activities are already rapidly diminishing and altering the forest cover and biodiversity, so that the threat posed by invasive species aggravates an already very worrying situation. It is difficult to quantify the invasive-induced threat confronting Vanuatu, whether it is to forests alone or all the country’s ecosystems. For forests and other vegetation in Vanuatu, the challenge brought about by invasive species is real and immense. The DoF, other government agencies, and regional and international entities are mobilizing resources in efforts to make sustainable management and conservation of forests a reality. However, invasive species add dimensions to the challenges of sustainable forestry. Aside from traditional forest management concerns, such as declining forest cover and imbalance between utilization and reforestation, alien species are increasingly becoming a concern, posing problems that require additional resources and even new strategies to address. Furthermore, given that some 28 percent of Vanuatu is already under man-made vegetation or bare ground, grassland and shrubs, the chances for the spread of invasive plant species into these vegetation types is greatly enhanced. This is because many invasive species tend to thrive in disturbed forests. If thickets, which already occupy more than 35 percent of land area, are also considered as prone to domination by invasive plants like Miremia peltata (big lif rop), then invasive species are indeed worthy of serious attention nationally. Significant forest invasive species Invasive species that impact on the forests and related biodiversity of Vanuatu are numerous. A number of points need to be noted prior to enumerating and describing the impacts and significance of these species. First, in compiling this report, it was not possible to establish if any of the fungi and diseases that threaten sustainable forestry and biodiversity in Vanuatu are alien or indigenous. Second, it is difficult to list these species in any priority because of the variations in their impacts and the limited understanding of the extent of their impacts on forests. Third, some invasive species are yet to register observable impacts on the forests, and their distribution is yet to be ascertained. Invasive plants Of all invasive plants in Vanuatu, perhaps the most widely cited pest is Cordia alliodora (Ecuador laurel or salmwood). Introduced as a forestry tree to Vanuatu in the 1970s, this species has now become dominant and is considered a serious pest in locations where it was planted. Planting trials were initiated on the islands of Santo, Vanua Lava, Mota Lava, Ureparapara, Malekula, Ambae, Maewo, Pentecost, Efate, Epi and Eromango. These are the major islands of Vanuatu. The introduction of this Central American tree is a classic example of an aid programme gone wrong, especially now that there is no lucrative market to sell the 800 hectares of stock planted. Cordia alliodora was introduced with the best intentions, but failed to live up to expectations for various reasons, probably linked to climatic differences between Central America and Vanuatu. It is becoming a nuisance as it slowly penetrates natural forests. It is a species that is multiplying at a faster rate than it is being harvested. Communities on a number of islands, particularly, Eromango and Maewo, have made formal complaints. Cordia alliodora is widely distributed meaning that if unchecked it could trigger an immense biodiversity problem. Another invasive plant species that is common, particularly in the drier parts of certain islands, is Leucaena leucocephala (kasis). Also known as the "conflict tree", this species was widely promoted as, among other things, a leguminous (nitrogen fixating) tree, cattle feed and fuel-wood source. Leucaena leucocephala can form dense monospecific thickets and is very difficult to eradicate once established, rendering extensive areas unusable and inaccessible. This plant is very competitive, has a high rate of regeneration, and is threatening native plants in some areas. Merremia peltata (big lif rop) is a vigorous creeping vine that may have been introduced to the islands during World War II, by the American army, for camouflage purposes. It is a real threat to forests because it strangles vegetation. Merremia peltata kills forests on sites disturbed by man, and where the canopy is naturally opened as a result of factors like dying trees and the impacts of cyclones. It is one of the most important weeds of plantation forestry and is also found in natural and semi-natural environments. This vine is one of two major species threatening natural regeneration in logged or disturbed areas. It prefers disturbed habitats and openings, including forest gaps and margins. Probably the second most invasive creeping vine that threatens forests in Vanuatu is Mikania micrantha (also called mile-a-minute weed or American rope, and sometimes confused with Polygonum perfoliatum). This is a perennial, twining plant that is rampant and fast spreading. It grows best where fertility, organic matter, soil moisture, and humidity are all high. It damages or kills other plants by cutting out light and smothering them. The plant is believed to have been intentionally introduced by the American army during World War II. Like Merremia peltata it grows very fast in disturbed forests and natural openings. Forest regeneration is difficult where this plant is established. A number of other invasive plants are worthy of mentioning here, even though their impacts are less apparent in Vanuatu. These include Acacia farnesiana and Coccinia grandis (ivy or scarlet gourd), which is a smothering vine that climbs over trees and forms a dense cover that completely shades and destroys the forest underneath. Another is Mimosa invisa, a giant plant covered with thorns. This is becoming a problem in Vanuatu, particularly in disturbed areas such as pasture. It moves into nearby forests, where it interferes with regeneration at the forest edges and forms dense tangles that are difficult to walk through. Also noteworthy is Clidemia hirta (Koster's curse), which is a very serious weed of the forest understory in Vanuatu. Another nuisance species is Lantana camara, which is particularly common in pasture areas, but nevertheless interferes with the growth of more desirable trees. One of the activities that aids in the spread of Lantana camara is the movement of logging equipment in the forest. Lantana is a pioneer weed that grows in newly disturbed areas. Another plant with similar impacts is Psidium guajava (guava or kuava). Mixed with species such as Mimosa invisa this plant is a complete barrier to the natural expansion of forests. Birds and other animals disperse seeds of Psidium guajava. Its growth is vigorous, particularly in the low plains used for grazing or in other disturbed areas. Invasive animals and insects Invasive animal species are also upsetting the natural balance in the forests. Many have impacts that are yet to be fully understood, as far as forests or trees are concerned, although it is already clear that some are causing immense destruction to forest biodiversity. One major pest is Acridotheres tristis (Indian mynah). This bird may have been introduced in the 1970s. It is fast becoming a dominant species on many islands. Commonly seen on cattle ranches, the bird is now an agricultural pest and reduces biodiversity by competing for nesting hollows, destroying chicks and eggs, and evicting small mammals. A study of its impacts on the forest in Vanuatu could yield very interesting and discouraging results. By displacing and preying on other birds and species, Acridotheres tristis is bound to have negative impacts on the forest and biodiversity. Another invasive pest is Achatina fulica (the giant African snail). This is a major agricultural and garden pest, but it also feeds on trees and leaves. It has been observed to feed on the bark of certain trees like Dendrocnide latifolia and tissues or shoots of young seedlings. It is also a vector (as are many snail species) of several human pathogens and parasites. It lays hundreds of eggs and multiplies at an alarming rate. In Vanuatu, droughts and prolonged dry conditions have killed large numbers of snails and slowed the extent of damage. Achatina fulica is found on a number of major islands. In dealing with snails, Vanuatu has also become a victim of biological control gone wrong, with the introduction of Euglandina rosea (rosy wolf snail or cannibal snail). This species was introduced as a biological control agent for Achatina fulica. It has been discovered, however, that although Euglandina rosea has indeed attacked the Achatina fulica, there is worrying evidence that this cannibal snail has caused the extinction of numerous native snails in other countries. The cannibal snail prefers preying on smaller snails, especially if the shell can be swallowed whole, suggesting that a component of its feeding behaviour is dictated by calcium demands. This means Vanuatu risks losing most, if not all, of its native snail species. The impacts of this alien species on the vegetation of Vanuatu perhaps begins with the destabilizing of snail and other species populations that are important to natural systems on which healthy forests depend. Combined with Achatina fulica, invasive snails are serious forest pests in Vanuatu. Another species of concern in Vanuatu is Wasmannia auropunctata (also known as cocoa tree-ant). Considered to be perhaps the greatest ant species threat in the Pacific, the little fire ant is blamed for reducing species diversity, reducing overall abundance of flying and tree-dwelling insects, and eliminating arachnid populations. Quarantine authorities have indicated that this species is currently confined to an island in the Banks group. Though its impacts on forests are yet to be fully understood, it is likely that Wasmannia auropunctata will alter many of the natural process that determine the kind of forest and related biodiversity of the islands. Given that invasive ants are capable of killing crabs, Vanuatu can expect Wasmannia auropunctata to be a major threat to its many crab species, including the famous Birgus latro (coconut crab), which is already heavily exploited by humans. Given the spread of ants globally, Vanuatu also needs to be aware of the possible introduction of other ants such as Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant). Apart from the potential to devastate human surroundings this species is also known to decimate endemic species, rapidly degrade native communities, and alter ecosystem processes. It interferes with and preys on species of reptiles, birds and mammals both on the forest floor and canopy. This species has caused extensive canopy dieback on Christmas Island and is capable of changing the structure of forests as a result of its impacts on native species[5]. The impact of sooty mould, which kills trees and shrubs, is increased where Anoplolepis gracilipes is established. Some claim this species is already present in Vanuatu, but local authorities refute this claim. Solenopsis invicta (red imported fire ant) is also a potential threat. Importance and relevance of invasive species The threats and nuisance posed by invasive species in Vanuatu have been a concern for a good number of years, perhaps beginning in the late-1970s and early-1980s. But, some invasive species were introduced to the islands much earlier. This is particularly true for a number of plant species like Merremia peltata and Mikania micrantha that now threaten forests and make sustainable forestry activities increasingly difficult. Despite the realization of the growing problem caused by invasive species, until recently, little was done to manage or control the spread of these species. It would also be correct to say that very little knowledge existed on these invasive species and the dangers they pose. It was only during the latter part of the 1990s that invasive species were given increased attention. Though these are now gaining increasing importance in the country, one could only wish that efforts to address them had come earlier, and been backed with more technical and financial resources. Vanuatu, like many other island countries, now accords alien invasive species much greater relevance, but this relevance is very much belated. Through a number of studies, the National Biodiversity Strategy And Action Plan (NBSAP) project implemented by the Environment Unit has brought the issue of invasive species to the attention of a wider audience. The studies, among other things, noted the impacts invasive species are having on the environment at large. The results of the assessment were documented in the country’s National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy for further action (see below). That more is being understood, said and done about invasive species in Vanuatu is not disputed. However, a number of other issues provide essential background to building on appreciation of the importance and relevance accorded to matters of invasive species. First, invasive species did not take priority (to a large extent this is still a problem) in government agencies until the late-1990s and early-2000. Second, because of the tradition of the sectoral approach employed by government agencies in the management of resources, the invasive problem, which cuts across sectors, has been more of a concern to the Vanuatu Quarantine and Inspection Service (VQIS) than others, although the work of the VQIS does not specifically address forest invasive species. Third, Vanuatu has limited resources and capacity in terms of expertise and finances, meaning the importance of invasive issues nationally is to a large extent driven by essential input from external entities. Fourth, the tendency in resource management has, for a long time, focused on the commercial value of resources. Threats to these resources, particularly as posed by invasive species and diseases, are seldom identified or addressed. This is especially true in forestry. Fifth, the understanding of invasive species by decision-makers is minimal and corresponds with seemingly limited political will given to the subject. Finally, island communities have little knowledge about invasive species. Put simply, for many years the majority of people did not know what an "invasive species" is. Many still think they are native and cause no detrimental impacts. More recently, many more communities are learning about these unwanted species. Management and control measures Plant Protection Act Efforts are being made to manage and control forest invasive species. It is appropriate to note two phases or levels to this management and control regime. The first are measures implemented by the VQIS through the Plant Protection Act of 1997. This legislation provides for the exclusion and effective management of plant pests and facilitates exports of plant produce. The Act provides mechanisms to deter any entry of unwanted organisms (including invasive species) that may affect the environment and natural resources, agriculture, humans, control of pests and diseases; and for the eradication of exotic pests and diseases. Phytosanitary measures Imports: The VQIS only issues import permits for approved products from approved countries, after a risk analysis has been carried out on the product. This includes the pest list associated with the product, effects on the environment, effects on agriculture, and consulting stakeholders. Stakeholders usually include relevant government departments and industries. All products are approved on a no risk or minimum risk basis. Strict guidelines controlling imports of plants or plant products are currently in place because some plants that have been approved for import by relevant departments have become invasive. Import certification: all approved imports of plants and plant products are documented with specific requirements for each country. The specific requirements are issued with the import permit when an application for a permit to import is lodged. Border control: quarantine posts have been established on the main islands of Vanuatu to control the entry of unwanted pests and diseases as well as imports of plants and plant products. Controls on existing entry pathways have been quite effective. Quarantine inspections: all approved imports of plant and plant products are inspected at the border. Goods that meet import requirements are released, while those that do not meet standards are either destroyed or reshipped. All illegal imports are dealt with under the Act and offenders are prosecuted. Plant protection services Surveying Vanuatu Like most least-developed countries, Vanuatu has very limited plant protection resources. The isolated nature of the islands allows for very little surveying and monitoring. Most of the monitoring systems in place are for specifically targeted pests and are implemented by the Plant Protection Service of the VQIS. Regional institutions conduct the survey and documentation of general pests and plant diseases, with assistance from local counterparts. These are not carried out on a regular basis. Monitoring Monitoring of pests and diseases is carried out by the Plant Protection Service, with the assistance of rural communities. Monitoring of pests and diseases in the islands is expensive and, to mitigate costs, the VQIS has set up an awareness campaign under which targeted pests are documented and this information is disseminated to rural communities. Rural communities are advised to report any unusual plants, pest, and diseases to the local authorities or the quarantine office. Control measures Vanuatu has undertaken several control operations for specific pests and diseases, but with very little success. The control measures that Vanuatu has used include: mechanical control, chemical control and the introduction of bio-control agents. A good example of a biological control agent introduced to control Achatina fulica is the predator snail Euglandina rosea. The predator snail has become invasive and is attacking native snails. Mechanical control is usually done by farmers to control weeds. Chemical control was employed in an attempt to control Wasmannia auropunctata, but it has proven very costly. All flights and ships from Banks and Torres are sprayed and checked to prevent the further spread of Wasmannia auropunctata. Awareness-raising is also a major activity. Eradication measures There are currently no eradication programmes for established pests and diseases. Vanuatu needs assistance for the implementation of such programmes. This also applies to invasive species of plants that are well established in Vanuatu. Emergency diseases and pest response Vanuatu is very vulnerable to the effects of an introduction of diseases, pests, or invasive plants and animals. An emergency disease and pest response system is in place to complement and be part of a total detection/protection system. This system starts at the border, through routine surveillance, and carries into response activation to control and/or eradicate a disease or pest before it becomes established. Forestry and environmental management and conservation acts The second level of the management regime can be categorized as that executed by the DoF and the Environment Unit. The Forestry Act of 2001 makes provision for the protection, development and sustainable management of forests and the regulation of the forestry industry in Vanuatu. It notes as one of the principles of forestry administration the protection of the diversity of forests and forest ecosystems in Vanuatu. The Act, however, says nothing about the control or management of forest invasive species. Part VI of the Act talks about the protection of the environment, but focuses on conservation per se. One of the cited dangers to forests is fire. Alien species are not acknowledged. Furthermore, although the Act calls for rehabilitation of forests, this is not because invasive species are more likely to occur in logged areas hence interfering with forest regeneration. The only control measure recommended by the DoF for the management of Cordia alliodora is to use the plant as fuel-wood. Even at the level of the DoF, a sense of urgency in relation to invasive species has developed only recently. The Department has still to give invasive species the policy priority, strategies and resources required. The Environmental Management and Conservation Act of 2002 provides for the conservation, sustainable development and management of the environment of Vanuatu. The Act defines foreign organisms as all stages of any life form that are not endemic to Vanuatu. However, this is almost all that the law says with regard to invasive species. The Act deals mostly with biodiversity in general and has little focus on invasive species. Other measures and initiatives Forest and environmental instruments Vanuatu is party to a number of international and regional environment-related instruments and initiatives. There are also a number of other national instruments. These need not all be enumerated here. Vanuatu signed the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1993 and therefore agrees to "try to prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate, those alien species that threaten ecosystems, habitats or species"[6] and prepare a National Biodiversity Strategy And Action Plan (NBSAP) as noted above. An Act to ratify the CBD was also passed to effect the implementation of this convention. Nevertheless, there is a need for additional instruments to ensure that Vanuatu fully meets its obligations under the treaty. The country’s constitution states that every person has among other fundamental duties "to protect Vanuatu and to safeguard the national wealth, resources and environment in the interests of the present and future generation"[7]. A national conservation strategy was adopted in 1994, but this document says nothing about invasive species. A national forest policy (nfp) adopted in 1997 does not address the management of invasive species either. It acknowledges that vines compete with natural regeneration, but fails to note that two of the greatest vine threats are invasive. The code of logging practice (COLP) does not say anything about invasive species, but could be helpful in the control of invasive species because of its emphasis on limiting forest opening. The only national instrument to say anything much on unwanted species is the Prevention of the Spread of Noxious Weeds Regulation of 1966. This is, however, outdated and does not prevent the transmission of such weeds on trucks, heavy equipment and by other means. Another relevant ordinance is the Wild Bird Protection Regulation of 1962. This is unfortunately also outdated and not effectively applied. It fails to address the current need to protect wildlife, endangered species and habitats. Vanuatu’s NBSAP is now complete and is, in many ways, the first policy and strategy document that gives high priority to the management of introduced species. The document notes the need to develop an administrative system to prevent adverse impacts of organisms that are potentially invasive, and also called for communities and implementing organizations/stakeholders to find opportunities to manage and eradicate species that are already threatening Vanuatu’s biodiversity (Environment Unit, 1999: 21-22)[8]. A number of priorities, responsible agencies and required activities are noted. The provisions in the document are, however, inadequate, as far as the involvement and role of the DoF is concerned. In other words, the NBSAP cannot be translated into detailed activities to be implemented by the DoF. Given the immense need for knowledge about an enormous diversity of species that impact on the forests, it might perhaps be more appropriate to have policies and other instruments on the management and control of forest invasive species. In August 2002, the first ever consultation involving a number of key groups in relation to invasive species was organized at the national level. The government institutions and stakeholders involved included the Environment Unit, government ministries including the departments of Forestry, Fisheries, Agriculture, and Attorney General, the VQIS, and a farm association. This is an integrated approach that partially stems from NBSAP research findings on invasive species. This group comprises the key institutions currently involved with invasive species management. The meeting noted a need to review existing policies/laws to identify their consistency or otherwise with respect to invasive species, so that the management and control of these species is provided for. The review should enable stakeholders to decide whether to work under existing laws or if there is a need to have a new law on invasive species. A policy on invasive species that identifies the roles of every institution or stakeholder is seen as essential. A review of these instruments is now underway. Vanuatu also benefited from a workshop on invasive species conducted by the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and its partners. Given these efforts, more people are becoming aware of invasive species and their impacts. Conclusion The forests of Vanuatu - and the biodiversity of which they are a part - are becoming increasingly invaded and threatened by alien species. These species include both plants and animals. This scenario calls for concerted new efforts on the part of the DoF and stakeholders. Vanuatu has a number of instruments for environmental management. These are nevertheless fragmented and underdeveloped, while some are outdated - and more often than not, legislation is neither applied nor enforced (Environment Unit, 1998: 9)[9]. The VQIS already has an elaborate pest and disease management and control system in place. The Forestry Act and NFP are generally devoid of provisions on invasive species. Consequently, the DoF has done little to address the crisis brought about as a result of the introduction of invasive species. A common weakness in existing instruments is their lack of emphasis on new environmental issues, particularly the challenge posed by invasive species. The review of instruments that have bearing on invasive species is a step in the right direction. The DoF may have to develop its own instruments and be a leading implementing agency in addressing the invasive problem in forests. It is recommended that - given the crosscutting and multi-sectoral nature of the problem and coupled with limited resources, expertise and capacity - an integrated approach with the assistance of regional and international bodies and governments would be the best option. Work begun by the relevant government agencies and stakeholders must be continued and backed by political will. The commitment of donors in terms of expertise and finance is a necessity and therefore called for. This is not only to aid in the development of the required management and control instruments, but also in actual ground implementation. The need for research into invasive species to scientifically describe the severity of their impacts and future threat to the forests is an activity to be considered seriously. The inclusion of forest invasive species in a revised NFP or the development of a policy entirely on invasive species has to be considered. Forest health surveillance should become an integral aspect of a new NFP because of the common problems addressed. There may be a need for an instrument that governs the introduction of plants and animals for biological control purposes. Government, through its agencies and stakeholders will, among other things, need to increasingly raise awareness about invasive species and work with communities. This is to develop a long-term, cheaper and sustainable approach to effectively addressing the impacts of invasive species on the forest resources of Vanuatu. Forest invasive species and their impacts on afforestation in Viet Nam Pham Quang Thu Forest Protection Research Division, Forest Institute of Viet Nam Introduction Over the past few decades, there has been a steady expansion of forest plantations across the country. According to data collected during 1999 by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, it is estimated that 1 471 394 hectares of forest plantations have been established in Viet Nam, of which there are about 288 073 hectares of Acacia, 348 000 hectares of Eucalyptus, 218 056 hectares of pines, 100 000 hectares of Melaleuca and about 500 000 hectares of other exotic and native species plantations. Products from plantations play a very important role in supplying raw materials for industry and are gradually replacing forest products harvested from natural forests. Plantations are now regarded as a means to meet wood requirements without putting excess pressure on natural forests. However, there is a fear that a catastrophic outbreak of pests and diseases may occur suddenly and that weed species may invade plantations during the rainy season, affecting tree growth and the quality of plantations. Outbreaks of diseases and insect pests occur in as much as 20 000 hectares of plantations annually. Surveys of diseases, insect pests and weeds and their importance to the trees have been implemented several times, on different scales, by various institutions including: the Forest Science Institute of Viet Nam, the Forest Science Sub-Institute of Viet Nam, the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute and the Forest Protection Department. Table 1 lists the most important plantations species in Viet Nam. Table 1: Tree species investigated. Species Abbreviation Acacia auriculiformis Aa Acacia mangium Am Acacia hybrid Ah Eucalyptus camaldulensis Ec Eucalyptus spp. Epp Eucalyptus tereticornis Et Eucalyptus urophylla Eu Casuarina equisetifolia Cas Cinnamomum cassia Cin Dendrocalamus membranaceus Den Manglietia glauca Mg Melaleuca spp. Mela Pinus merkusii Pme Pinus kesiya Pk Pinus caribaea Pca Pinus massoniana Pma Styrax tonkinensis St Tectona grandis Tec Status of forest invasive species in Viet Nam Forest invasive insect pests The most important insect pest species are listed in alphabetically in Table 2, with an indication of the species that are affected by these insects. There are 19 main invasive insect species associated with large-scale monocultural forest plantations in Viet Nam. The most important is a species of leaf feeding caterpillar Dendrolimus punstatus, which invades plantations of Pinus merkusii and P. massoniana. Six species of insects, such as Anomis fulvida, Pteroma plagiophleps and Speiredonia retorta are considered to be important and widespread invasive species and their outbreaks occur widely in plantations. The other species are considered important invasive species and outbreaks have occurred locally in plantations. Table 2: The major forest invasive insects Species Family Principal trees attacked Anomis fulvida (Guennee) Noctuidae Am Arbela baibarana (Mats) Cossidae Cin Aristobia approximator (Thoms.) Cerambycidae Ec, Et Culcula paterinaria (Brem. Et Grey) Geometridae Cin Cyrtotrachelus longimanus (Fabr.) Curcunionidae Den Dendrolimus punctatus (Walker) Lasiocampidae Pme, Pma Dioryctria abietella (Denis Schif) Pyraliidae Pme, Pma Dioryctria sylvestrella Pyralidae Pca Erthesina fullo (Thunberg) Pentatomidae Cin Eutectona machaeralis (Walker) Pyralidae Tec Fentonia sp. Notodontidae St Macrotermes sp. Termitidae Pk, Pme, Pma, Epp, Am, Aa, Ah Microtermes sp. Termitidae Am, Aa, Ah, Epp Nesodiprion biremis (Konow) Diprionidae Pme, Pma Odontotermes sp. Termitidae Am, Ah, Aa, Epp, Mg, Cin, Tec Pteroma plagiophleps (Hampson.) Psychidae Am Shizocera sp. Agridae Mg Speiredonia retorta (L.) Noctuidae Am Zeuzera coffeae (Nietn) Cossidae Cas, Mela The main pathogens attacking forest plantations The major pathogens affecting plantations in Viet Nam are listed alphabetically in Table 3. Nine main species have infected large-scale monocultural plantations in Viet Nam. Three of these species Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti, Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum and Corticium salmonicolor are the most important exotic species affecting Eucalyptus and Acacia plantations. The other species are considered to be important species to both exotic and indigenous species plantations. Table 3: Major pathogens to forest plantations Species Family Principal trees attacked Botryosphaeria dothidae Botryosphaeriaceae Ah, Ec Corticium salmonicolor B.Broome Cortciaceae Am, Ah, Ec, Eh Cronartium sp. Melampsoraceae Pk Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti Melanconiaceae Epp Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum Moniliaceae Epp Ganoderma spp. Ganodermataceae Am, Aa, Ah Phaeophleospora destructans Dematiaceae Eu, FA Ralstonia solanacearum Smit Pseudomonaceae Eu, Cas Unidentified Cin Invasive weeds in forest plantations The main invasive weeds in Viet Nam are listed in Table 4. There were six main weeds, of which two species, blady grass and feather pennisetum, are very widespread and important in Acacia and Eucalyptus plantations. Table 4: Major weeds to forest plantations Species Family Principal trees attacked Eleocharis acicularis (L.) R.& Sch. Cyperaceae Mela Eupatorium odoratum Linn. Asteraceae Am, Aa, Ah, Epp Pme, Pma, Pk, Pca, Mg, St Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. Poaceae Am, Aa, Ah, Epp, Pme, Pma, Pk, Pca, Mg, St Mimosa pudica Linn. Mimosaceae Am, Aa, Ah, Epp, Pme, Pma, Pk, Pca, Mg, St Mimosa pigra L Fabaceae Mela Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult Poaceae Am, Aa, Ah, Epp Impacts of invasive species to plantations Acacia plantations Acacia spp. plantations have been planted throughout the country for the production of pulp for paper and medium density fiberboard. In general, Acacia plantations are remarkably free of insect pests. Insects commonly found feeding on the foliage include several species of bagworms, curculionid beetles and some hairy caterpillars. However, outbreaks of insect pests in Acacia mangium plantations occasionally occur on a large-scale. Bagworm (Pteroma plagiophleps) (Lepidoptera, Psychidae) has caused damage to Acacia mangium in Hoa Binh and Ha Tay provinces (northern Viet Nam) in 2000 and 2001, respectively. Other leaf-eating insects, Anomis fulvida (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) and Speiredonia retorta (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) have infested thousands of hectares of 2-10 year-old Acacia mangium plantations in Tuyen Quang, Phu Tho, and Thai Nguyen provinces in 2001 and in 2002. In addition, Odontotermes sp., Microtermes sp. and Macrotermes sp. (Isoptera, Termitidae) killed 10-50 percent of planted saplings aged less than one year in several locations of the central highlands and mountainous areas. Measures for controlling insect pests attacking Acacia plantations have been implemented. Chemical compounds are the main means of controlling these insect pests. The chemical control measures have been partially successful, but are expensive to implement and have a considerable negative impact on the environment. There are currently no effective measures for controlling termites. Diseases associated with Acacia plantations were investigated at a number of locations in Viet Nam. The most important disease is the pink disease caused by the fungal pathogen Corticium salmonicolor (Aphyllophorales, Cortciaceae). This disease occurs in locations with high rainfall, of more than 1 800 mm per year, which includes most of Viet Nam. It attacks plantations aged more than three years. Disease incidence is regarded as very high in southeast Viet Nam, ranging from 10-40 percent depending on species/provenance or clones. Stem canker associated with Acacia hybrids has shown a tendency to develop into outbreaks in the central highlands (Kon Tum province). One thousand hectares of 2-3 year-old Acacia hybrid plantations were infected by Botryosphaeria dothidae (Dothideales, Botryosphaeriaceae), with disease incidence ranging from 10-30 percent. Heart rot disease occurs in Acacia plantations in high rainfall areas, especially in the north and southeast of Viet Nam. Pathogens were identified to be Ganoderma spp. The disease incidence with advanced decay and hollows was 20-30 percent. There are currently no measures for controlling these diseases. It seems to be impossible to spray chemical compounds because of the high costs involved and the potential for environmental pollution. Screening for provenances or clones showing disease resistance, from progeny trials, has been implemented for several years, however, the results from this work have yet to be been published. Weeds are considered to be very important invasive species in Acacia plantations aged less than two years. The dominant weeds are blady grass (Imperata cylindrica) and feather pennisetum (Pennisetum polystachion). These two species affected growth of plantations. Two other species Mimosa pudica and Eupatorium odoratum are distributed widely and considered to be important weed species. Eucalyptus plantations In Viet Nam, a few species of lepidopteran caterpillars have been found to feed on Eucalyptus leaves, although outbreaks are rare. The cerambycid borer (Aristobia approximator) (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) caused severe damage to thousands of hectares of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Eucalyptus tereticornis plantations in the Mekong delta. The most common insect pests are subterranean termites including Odontotermes sp., Microtermes sp. and Macrotermes sp. (Isoptera, Termitidae) that attack the roots of young transplants and kill 10-60 percent of saplings aged less than one year. Measures for controlling insect pests attacking Eucalyptus plantations have not yet been implemented. There are currently no effective measures for controlling termites. Diseases associated with Eucalyptus plantations have been investigated throughout Viet Nam. The most important and widespread diseases have been leaf blight disease caused by the fungal pathogen Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum and leaf spot disease caused by the fungal pathogen Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti. Disease incidence for the first disease was regarded as very high in southeast and central Viet Nam, ranging from 10-90 percent depending on species/provenance or clones. Leaf spot disease is caused by Phaeophleospora destructans and is associated with E. urophylla and some hybrid clones. It was first found in Viet Nam in 2001. The disease incidence is 10-60 percent in Phu Tho and Gia Lai provinces. Disease incidence of the bacterial wilt disease caused by Ralstonia solanacearum Smit, associated with Eucalyptus urophylla plantations is 10-30 percent in the northern provinces. There are currently no measures for controlling these diseases. Research on provenances or clones showing disease resistance from progeny trials continues to be implemented. The results of this work have not yet been published. The most important weeds in Eucalyptus plantations are Imperata cylindrica and Pennisetum polystachion. These two species affect the growth of the plantations. Two other species Mimosa pudica and Eupatorium odoratum are widely distributed and considered to be important species. Pine plantations Outbreaks of the caterpillar Dendrolimus punctatus (Lepidoptera, Lasiocampidae) have occurred frequently on a large scale in Pinus merkusii and P. massoniana plantations in the whole country. Sawfly Nesodiprion biremis (Lepidoptera, Diprionidae) has caused considerable damage to Pinus kesyia and P. massoniana in the central highlands of Viet Nam. These two species have severely affected resin productivity in Viet Nam. Other shoot borer pests Dioryctria abietella (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) and Dioryctria sylvestrella (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) attacked Pinus merkusii, P. massoniana and P. caribaea in some northern provinces. Macrotermes sp. attacks the roots of young transplants and killed 10-30 percent saplings aged less than one year in several mountainous areas. Chemical measures have been implemented by growers to manage these pests. However, these control measures are costly and cause significant environmental pollution. White blister rust Cronatium sp. is associated with Pinus kesyia in Lam Dong and Gia Lai provinces. Disease incidence is rather high in young plantations in some locations. Identification of species and the implementation of control measures are yet to be done. Impacts of weeds on Melaleuca leucadendra and M. cajuputi plantations Mimosa pigra is quickly becoming one of the most serious species threats to Melaleuca plantations in the freshwater wetland areas of the Tram Chim National Park and U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve. At present, the U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve and Tram Chim National Park in the Cuu Long (Mekong) river delta are endangered by Mimosa. Mimosa plants were first observed at Tram Chim in 1985. By 1999, some 150 hectares were infested. A distribution map drawn up by the HCM Natural Science College in June 2000 showed an infested area of 490 hectares. The map also predicted that a further 4 600 hectares, or 60 percent of the park’s land area, is highly susceptible to Mimosa invasion. At present this species has also developed at other locations such as Tri An lake, Cat Tien Natural Park, and Hoa Binh lake. A Mimosa control experiment showed that cutting stems, burning off, and a combination of the two, were ineffective measures to eradicate the plant from Tram Chim National Park. The experiment found that the plants resprouted quickly after cutting and that burning helped to trigger the spread and germination of Mimosa seeds. The most successful control method was cutting the Mimosa plants during the flood season. The Tram Chim wetlands are subject to between four and six months of flooding each year. The experiment cut the stems when the floodwater was about 30 cm above the soil surface. Four months after the treatment, when floodwater was still 60 to 80 cm above soil surface, none of the treated plants had resprouted and 75-90 percent of the roots had died. Other plantations Outbreaks of the leaf-feeding caterpillar, Fentonia sp. (Lepidoptera, Notodontidae), have occurred annually in Styrax tonkinensis plantations causing different levels of damage. In 2001, an outbreak of Fentonia sp. occurred, affecting about 2 100 hectares of 3-5 year old plantations. Chemical compounds were applied to control this insect. Outbreaks of sawfly (Shizocera sp.) (Hymenoptera, Agridae) have caused considerable damage to Manglietia glauca plantations in northern Viet Nam. Eutectona machaeralis (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) attacked Tectona grandis plantations in several provinces, and caused considerable damage. Some insect pests such as: Culcula paterinaria (Lepidoptera, Geometridae), Arbela baibarana (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) and Erthesina fullo (Hemiptera, Pentatomidae) are important species affecting Cinnamomum cassia plantations, in some provinces. Cyrtotrachelus longimanus Fabr. (Coleoptera, Curcunionidae) feeds on young bamboo shoots of Dendrocalamus membranaceus causing considerable damage in Thanh Hoa and Hoa Binh provinces. Conclusions and discussions At present, the Vietnamese Government is in the process of implementing a programme for the reforestation of 5 million hectares, by the year 2010. This means that the area of forest plantations will increase rapidly in Viet Nam. Research on planting species, natural enemies, insect pests, diseases and weeds in forest plantations and policy related to forest development and forest protection must be conducted. Outbreaks of diseases and insect pests affect as much as 20 000 hectares of plantations annually. The narrow genetic base of introduced planting stock increases the risk of pest outbreaks. No systematic research on insect pests, diseases and other forest invasive species has been conducted. Plant quarantine and avoidance of natural enemies to planting trees have not been sufficiently investigated, resulting in high costs to combat the pests. At present, chemical control methods are the most commonly applied management techniques. Other control methods are rarely applied. Screening for disease resistance or insect pest resistant tree varieties commenced several years ago, but there are currently no published results from this. There is a need for capacity building in the area of invasive species through on the job training. Additional extension activities are required to promote the use of IPM among farmers in Viet Nam. There is a direct need for basic information on important insect pests, pathogens, weeds etc. This should be obtained by means of an intensive research programme. [5] See Earth crash. Earth spirit. Healing ourselves and dying planet. www.eces.org/index.php/368?page_nbr=2 - 11k [6] Convention on Biological Diversity [7] Constitution of the Republic of Vanuatu [8] Environment Unit, 1999. National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy. Environment Unit, Port Vila. [9] Environment Unit, 1998. Vanuatu National Report to the Conference of the Parties, Environment Unit, Port Vila. Previous Page Top of Page http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae944e/ae944e0a.htm#TopOfPage Foreword Invasive species: an overview http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae944e/ae944e00.htm#Contents Table of Contents Foreword Invasive species: an overview Introductory session Opening session Introductory remarks - Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Bangkok, Thailand Introductory remarks - Jerome S. Beatty, Deputy Director, USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Protection Technical presentations A global perspective on forest invasive species: the problem, causes, and consequences - Sally Campbell, PNW Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Portland, Oregon, USA Alien forest pests and management practices in China - Wei Diansheng, Department of Silviculture, State Forest Administration, Bejing, China Pest risk assessments and incursion pathways - Allan T. Bullard. Director, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, USDA Forest Service FAO activities related to invasive species in forestry - Simmathiri Appanah, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand Ecological and economic impacts of invasive species - Chris Baddeley, Team Leader Biosecurity Policy, New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) - Greg Stubbings, National Manager, Forestry Section, Canadian Food Inspection Agency Key elements in developing a forest invasive species biosecurity strategy for Australia - Mike Cole, Office of the Chief Plant Protection Officer (OCCPO), Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) Managing invasive species: the threat to oil-palm and rubber - the Malaysian plant quarantine regulatory perspective - B.O. Asna and H.L. Ho, Crop Protection and Plant Quarantine Division, Department of Agriculture (DoA), Malaysia When good trees turn bad: the unintended spread of introduced plantation tree species in India - K.V. Sankaran, S.T. Murphy and M.A. Sreenivasan, Kerala Forest Research Institute, India CABI Bioscience, UK Centre (Ascot), United Kingdom Acacias - are they a threat as invasive species in the wet tropics? - B. Krishnapillay, H.C. Sim and M.A.A. Razak, Asia-Pacific Association of Forestry Research Institutes Forest Research Institute of Malaysia Pine wood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) and other forest pathogens in Japan - Shigeru Kaneko, Kansai Research Center, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Japan Assisted natural regeneration: countering the impact of Imperata grass infestation in the Philippines - Peter Walpole, Director, Institute of Environmental Science for Social Change, Manila, Philippines Country reports Forest invasive species strategies in Australia - Michael Cole, Office of the Chief Plant Protection Officer (OCCPO), Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) Cambodia: The Mimosa pigra report - Samreth Vanna and Ket Nang, Department of Forestry and Wildlife Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fishery Forest Invasive Species: Country Report - P. R. China - Sun Jianghua, Chinese Academy of Sciences Forest invasive species: country report - Fiji - Inoke Wainqolo and Visone Timote, Fijian Forestry Department Fiji Quarantine Inspection Service Forest invasive species: country report - India - Shekhar Kumar Niraj, Ministry of Environment and Forests The invasion of Acacia nilotica in Baluran National Park, East Java, and its control measures - R. Garsetiasih and Hendrik Siubelan, Researcher of Forest and Nature Conservation Research and Development Centre, Bogor, Indonesia Head of Baluran National Park, East Java, Indonesia Forest Invasive Species in Lao PDR - Thongphath Leuangkhamma and Vongdeuane Vongsiharath Department of Forestry Forest invasive species country paper - Nepal - Madhusudan Bista and Mahendra Prasad Chaudhary, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation Plant Quarantine Service A status report on some invasive forest species in Papua New Guinea - Robert Kiapranis and Patrick Nimiago, PNG Forest Research Institute, Papua New Guinea Country report on forest invasive species in the Philippines - N.T. Baguinon, M.O. Quimado and G.J. Francisco, University of the Philippines, Los Baños Forest Management Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Status of forest invasive species in Sri Lanka - N.D.R. Weerawardane and J. Dissanayake, Forest Department Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Invasive species in the United States of America - 2003 - David F. Thomas, Forest Health Protection, USDA Forest Service Country report on the forestry invasive species situation in Vanuatu - Ruben Bakeo and Francis Qarani, Department of Forests, Department of Quarantine Forest invasive species and their impacts on afforestation in Viet Nam - Pham Quang Thu, Forest Protection Research Division, Forest Institute of Viet Nam Appendix 1: Programme Appendix 2: List of participants Back coverhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae944e/ae944e00.htm#Contents