The natural forest types of the Philippines

Country report on forest invasive species in the Philippines N.T. Baguinon, M.O. Quimado and G.J. Francisco University of the Philippines, Los Baños Forest Management Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) The natural forest types of the Philippines The types of forests in the Philippines were first enumerated by Whitford (1911) who recognized mangrove, beach, dipterocarp, molave, pine, montane and mossy forest types. The Palawan Botanical Expedition by Hilleshog AB (1984) recognized within Palawan many types of vegetation, for example, ultramafic and ultrabasic forests, karst limestone forests, riverine forests, semi-evergreen dipterocarp forests, evergreen dipterocarp forests and lake-margin forests. There could be more actual forest types than the number already published. Stereotyping a continuum of unique forest ecosystems into just a few lists may not render justice to the wonders of evolution and the complex Philippine bio-geological history. However, the latest classification of Philippine ecosystem diversity types in the terrestrial setting (DENR-NBSAP 1997) are the following: (1) lowland evergreen rain forest, (2) lower montane forest, (3) upper montane forest, (4) subalpine forest, (5) pine forest, (6) forest over limestone, (7) forest over ultrabasic soils, (8) semi-deciduous forest, and (9) beach forest. The lowland evergreen rain forests are located on volcanic soils with even distribution of rainfall and correspond with Whitford’s dipterocarp forests excluding the apitong-lauan subtype, which corresponds with semi-deciduous forest. The importance of the members of the Dipterocarpaceae is most notable in lowland evergreen rain forests (Newman et al, 1996). Beyond 1000 metres in altitude, lower montane forests are encountered. In these forests, Fagaceae (the family of oaks) increase in number of species, as do species in families such as Araliaceae, Staphyleaceae, and Lauraceae. Many tree ferns, epiphytes such as orchids, ferns and allies, increase in importance. As elevation is gained, upper montane forest begins to occur (at about 2000 metres). Members of the Ericaceae (e.g. Rhododendron quadrasianum, Vaccinium myrtoides, etc.), Myrtaceae (such as Leptospermum flavescens) and Theaceae (such as Eurya, Cleyera, Schima, Adinandra, and Camellia species) families are encountered (Merrill and Merritt, 1910). In regions with seasonal monsoon climates, the montane forests when disturbed into a gap by fire is readily succeeded by disclimax vegetation dominated by benguet pine (Pinus insularis) (Kowal, 1975). In Mindoro Island, only tapulau pine forest exists. Pine forests are perpetuated by fire and therefore also known as fire disclimaxes. In limestone forests, below 1000 metres, the keystone species are molave (Vitex parviflora), lingo-lingo (Viticipremna philippinensis), alagao (Premna odorata), and batete (Kingiodendron alternifolium). Beach forests above the intertidal zone vary depending upon the substrate (Merrill, 1945). Beach forests exist as Casuarina subtype or Barringtonia subtype. In one extreme, on sand dunes, pure stands of agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia) would be characteristic. At the other extreme, on rocky shores, is mixed vegetation of the Barringtonia subtype. Forests on ultrabasic soils (Hilleshog Forestry AB, 1984) are not as dense and tall as the mixed dipterocarp forests, simply because they develop on unhealthy serpentine and basic soils. This type of forest features hardwoods such as mancono (Xanthostemon verdugonianum), bagoadlau (X. philippinensis), malabayabas (Tristaniopsis decorticata), Brackenridgea palustris, mountain agoho (Gymnostoma rumphiana), and Scaevola micrantha. The introduction of exotic species Merrill’s "Enumeration of Philippine flowering plants" (1921-26) and subsequent revisions in the "Flora Malesiana" (1954-present) are good references to determine which species are indigenous and exotic (Rojo, 1999). Exotic species are indicated with asterisks. Prehistoric introduction of trees (probably by Malayo-Polynesian settlers) were first noted and may have included common agricultural tree crops such as the katurai (*Sesbania grandiflora), malunggai (*Moringa oleifera), mango (*Mangifera indica), nangka (*Artocarpus heterophyllus), breadfruit (*A. altilis), santol (*Sandoricum koetjape), rambutan (*Nephelium lappaceum), karamai (*Cicca (Phyllanthus) acida), bignai (*Antidesma bunius), kamias (*Averrhoa bilimbi), balimbing (*A. carambola), duhat (*Syzygium jambolana) and other *Syzygium spp., kawayan kiling (*Bambusa vulgaris), kawayan tinik (*B. spinosa) and many others. Most of these are Indo-Malayan in origin. A few escaped into the wild like the bignai, duhat and santol. However, these have not grown and established themselves as persistent gregarious stands. The Spanish regime, through the Acapulco trade, brought additional exotic tree species, mostly agricultural crops such as the *Anona spp. (atis, cherimoya, guyabano, anonas), biriba (*Rollinia deliciosa), zapote (*Diospyros digyna), cacao (*Theobroma cacao), siniguelas (*Spondias purpurea), chico (*Manilkara sapota), tiesa (*Pouteria campechiana), cashew (*Anacardium occidentale), avocado (*Persea americana), kamatchile (*Pithecellobium dulce) and datiles (*Muntingia calabura). Woody trees such as the monkey-pod tree (*Samanea saman), *ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), kakawate (*Gliricidia sepium) and kalachuchi (*Plumiera rubra) were also introduced. Coffee (*Coffea spp.) was introduced by the Spanish from Africa. Some of these escaped into the field, for example ipil-ipil, datiles, and kamatchile. Of the tropical American exotic trees, ipil-ipil may be singled-out as bio-invasive, as the species forms pure stands in open areas. Kamatchile and datiles have been dispersed but their numbers are limited, compared with ipil-ipil. During the American regime, more exotic tree species found their way to the Philippines as Caguioa (1953) recounts: "After the Spanish-American war, plants have been introduced into the Philippines generally by exchange between the governments of foreign countries and the Philippine Government, through the Bureau of Forestry and Bureau of Plant Industry and by purchase from foreign countries by private citizens. Introduced plants came into the Philippines during the Spanish regime, the Philippines introduced plant materials from Central American countries through missionaries and others who came to the Philippines by way of galleon from Mexico to the Orient, and from the neighbouring countries or islands through traders and travellers who came to visit this country by water transportation. During the first half of the present century, many countries in both the western and the eastern hemisphere have exchanged planting materials with the Philippines." Exotic species were added as a result of the agricultural and forestry schools that were opened (Buenaventura, 1958). In 1910, the School of Forestry site consisted of grass and brush at the base of Mount Makiling. Laguna, Luzon and American administrators initiated the reforestation of the school grounds mainly by planting indigenous tree species, as well as the tropical American species mahogany (*Swietenia spp.), rubber (*Hevea brasiliensis), and ipil-ipil (*Leucaena leucocephala). Then other exotics followed such as kakawate, palosanto (*Triplaris cumingiana), Anchoan dilaw (*Cassia spectabilis), golden shower (*C. fistula), and teak (*Tectona grandis). Note that they also introduced dipterocarps from other parts of the country to enrich the native Makiling dipterocarps, namely, white lauan (Shorea contorta), bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan) and guijo (Shorea guiso) (Brown, 1919). African tulip (*Spathodea campanulata) was introduced in 1925 to the Forestry School campus (Anonymous, 1930) and it has since spread deep in natural stands. Ponce (1933) documented the introduction of the American mahoganies. Small leaf mahogany (*Swietenia mahogani) was introduced as early as 1911, and by batches in 1913, 1914, 1920 and 1922, from tropical America. Large leaf mahogany (*S. macrophylla) was first planted in Manila in 1907, then at the Forestry School at Mt. Makiling in 1913. Lizardo (1960) reviewed the introduction of Eucalyptus in the Philippines. Spanish friars introduced (*Eucalyptus globulus) at Alcala, Cagayan as early as 1851 and in 1939, the first trial plantings for *E. robusta were initiated. Other plantings were *E. rostrata in 1918, *E. tereticornis 1910, *E. citriodora 1936, *E. viminalis 1918, *E. pulverulenta 1916, and *E. saligna 1947. The paper mulberry (*Broussonetia papyrifera) was introduced in 1935 to augment bast fibre-producing tree crops at the Makiling Forestry School campus and - as did coronitas (*Lantana camara) from Hawaii - escaped to become serious pests. Both species invade young secondary forests, thickets, orchards and farms. These two species and mahogany have spread throughout the Philippine archipelago. Post-war introduction of exotics continues and planting them has almost become synonymous with reforestation. Yemane (*Gmelina arborea) was introduced in 1960 and planted in Minglanilla, Cebu by the Bureau of Forestry (Binua and Arias, 1966). Mangium (*Acacia mangium) was introduced in 1960 from Sabah. The Philippines Forestry Statistics (1984) record that out of a total 52 487 seedlings produced by the Philippines Government forest agency, 82.4 percent (43 234 seedlings) of seedlings were exotics. These were distributed across giant ipil-ipil (41 percent), large leaf mahogany (33 percent), yemane (17 percent), teak (4 percent), and others (5 percent). Seedlings of indigenous tree species contributed 17.6 percent. Current foresters’ notion of reforestation Based on the forest definition by American mentors as artificial or natural, Tamesis and Sulit (1937) define "reforestation" as the restoration of an area to forest either by artificial or natural means and "afforestation" applies to the planting of a forest on land that has not previously borne forest. They mention planting exotics in Bukidnon including chinchona, large leaf mahogany, *Araucaria bidwillii, *Pinus massoniana, Anchoan dilaw, *Adenanthera microsperma, *Thuja orientalis, black wattle (*Acacia decurrens), and *Cryptomeria japonica. In Baguio, *Eucalyptus spp. and Alder (*Alnus spp.) were planted. Tamesis and Sulit cite that good reforestation species are of: economic value; rapid growth for short cutting cycle; fire and other damage causes are resisted by species; and easy to grow and propagate. There is also the mindset among foresters that artificial forests are as ecological as the natural forest they replace. For example, Domingo (1983) wrote during the First ASEAN Congress, "... when we convert a dipterocarp forest to pulpwood plantation, what we are doing is just transferring the jungle regrowth onto a tree species of our choice for pulpwood. Substituting the economically unnecessary but ecologically necessary jungle regrowth with an economically important pulpwood plantation does not change, it might even enhance, the normal ecological pattern. The same ecological benefits that the jungle regrowth provides can be provided by the plantation...." In short, this goes in line with most foresters’ pragmatism that if the natural forest is gone or nearly gone, enrichment planting with fast-growing commercial exotic tree species is better than restoring natural forests for two reasons. One, because a return of investment at the earliest possible time is provided by the artificial forest, and two, artificial forests also provide the same environmental services as natural forests, particularly, on watershed function and carbon-sequestration. Other foresters also claim that analogue forests and agroforest zones can also be as rich in floral diversity as or even richer than are natural forest ecosystems. Thus, during the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC) Symposium-Workshop on Facing the Challenge of Sustaining Biodiversity Conservation in Mt. Makiling, Gruezo (2000) reports "...Comparison of floral diversity in these four zones (Mossy forest zone, Dipterocarp mid-montane forest zone, Grassland zone and Agroforestry Zone) reveals that the agroforestry zone had the highest diversity value using the Shannon-Weiner formula, with H’ = 4.2869 followed by the dipterocarp-mid-montane forest zone, H’ = 3.8913, ...". Man can cram many exotic crops including their exotic weeds in one place, then make statements to the effect that agro-ecosystems are more diverse than natural forest ecosystems. Bio-invasive species and natural forests As far back as the pre-war period, exotic trees have been used in reforestation. Projects of the Reforestation Administration used exotic species as showcases, e.g. reforestation at Minglanilla in Cebu, the Nasiping Reforestation Project in Cagayan, Paraiso reforestation in Ilocos Norte, Canlaon reforestation in Negros, and Impalutao reforestation in Bukidnon. The reforestation projects of the Bureau of Forestry were well spread throughout the archipelago. Seedlings from these projects found their way into national parks and for this reason mahogany can be found in most of the country’s nature parks. However, no studies have yet been done on the rate of bio-invasion of these nature reserves and parks. The planting of exotics in the Integrated Protected Area System (IPAS) of the Philippines has now been prohibited under the present DENR’s PAWB (Park and Wildlife Bureau). No definite policies are in place yet on what to do with mature exotic trees, should they become bio-invasive. This issue is now being seriously considered by the College of Forestry and Natural Resources, for the Makiling Forest reserve. Because there was a law requiring replanting of logged-over dipterocarp forests during the 1960s to 1980s, many timberlands have had been reforested with exotic trees, among them mahogany, yemane, mangium, bagras and teak. Of these tree species, only mahogany is a potential bio-invasive species in the logged-over forest and is threatening to out compete the indigenous dipterocarp and non-dipterocarp tree species. Mahogany is successful at invading natural forests due to the following attributes of the species. The fruit of mahogany is a capsule and contains an average of 62 winged seeds (Anonymous, 1930). The number of seeds a mahogany mother tree can disperse is considerable. Assuming 50 capsules, 3000 seeds can be blown away from the mother tree. The seeds can be blown some 20 to 40 meters from the mother tree. The seeds, being recalcitrant, germinate in less than a month. Mahogany seeds contain food reserves and germinate hypogeal. This means that even if the initial light is relatively poor, the young mahogany plant develops even without initial photosynthesis. The first young leaves of mahogany are scale leaves and not green. True photosynthetic leaves come later and are adapted to sun-flecked shade and partial shade. Hardened mahogany seedlings can tolerate open fields as long as soil moisture is not limiting. The leaves of mahogany are rarely attacked by herbivores. Thus, a mahogany plantation is like a "green desert" to wildlife. Dipterocarps fruit and seed irregularly in intervals of four to five years and therefore stand no chance competing with mahogany. When mother trees shed their leaves during the months of February, they form a thick litter mat. Dry mahogany leaves are red and can be very rich in tannin. The leaves are intact during the whole length of the dry season. This litter mat could be one reason why very few seedlings are recruited under the mahogany plantation, including their own seedlings. Dispersed recalcitrant seeds rest on top of the litter mat instead of reaching the moist soil and hence die due to desiccation. They may also be allelopathic (Thinley, 2002). Extracts from the leaves of mahogany were shown to retard the growth of narra (Pterocarpus indicus) test seedlings. Recruits increase away from the mahogany plantation and this increase is proportional to the competition offered by mahogany wildlings (Alvarez, 2001; Castillo, 2001). The importance of mahogany seedlings is negatively correlated with the Shannon-Weiner Diversity Indices of quadrats positioned from the mahogany plantation and away from it. In other words, diversity of the quadrats decreases as the importance of mahogany increases. While mahogany invades regenerating dipterocarp forests and may give the dipterocarps a hard time in competition, the paper mulberry (*Broussonetia papyrifera) also gives indigenous gap and pioneer tree species very keen competition. Ocular observation shows that where paper mulberry forms pure stand thickets, the usual indigenous pioneer tree species such as anabiong (Trema orientalis), binunga (Macaranga tanarius), alim (Melanolepis multiglandulosus), banato (Mallotus philippinensis), tibig (Ficus nota), hauili (F. septica), isis (F. ulmifolia), sablot (Litsea sebifera), paguringon (Cratoxylon sumatranum), and malapapaya (Polyscias nodosa) are not present. The combination of mahogany and paper mulberry is therefore a big blow for the ecological succession of the landscape, at the gap and building-up phases. This can be a serious problem for Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) practitioners. Other important bio-invasive species in the general landscape of rural Philippine settings are hagonoy (*Chromolaena odorata) and coronitas (*Lantana camara). These two species retard the succession process in open grasslands, where they can become very gregarious, thus offering no ground for indigenous gap species. Where paper mulberry cannot establish, the equally important bio-invasive species ipil-ipil (*Leucaena leucocephala) can usurp steep bare slopes and form pure stands of ipil-ipil. At the back of beaches and along beaches, two exotic mimosoid legumes also form gregarious thickets of aroma (*Acacia farnesiana) and mesquite aroma (*Prosopis juliflorae), respectively. In the gaps of lower and upper montane forests of the Cordillera Highlands, the prolific and gregarious alders *Alnus maritima and *A. nepalensis also tend to form pure stands and these could also potentially be bio-invasive species in these parts of the country. Recommendations Tree plantations and natural forest stands should be distant and dispersal of bio-invasive propagules should be avoided. Bio-invasive species that have very long dispersal abilities and with allelopathic properties should be checked and banned in all successional stages of natural forests, for example paper mulberry and mahogany. Dispersal radius of suspect bio-invasive exotic tree species should be studied, so that plantations that are safe from becoming sources of bio-invasive species may be designed. References Agroforestry Research Center - FORI. 1980. Introducing a fast-growing Acacia species. Canopy, 6(8): 1. Alvarez E.M. 2001. Monitoring the spread of large leaf mahogany (*Swietenia macrophylla King) in lowland dipterocarp forest in Mt. Makiling, Laguna. Unpublished B.S. Forestry Thesis, UPLB-CFNR. Anonymous. 1930. Notes and jottings from the Bureau of Forestry Plantations. Makiling Echo, January 23, 1930. Baguinon N.T. 2000. ENRM 202: Forest and terrestrial ecosystems. Published by U.P. Open University. 409pp. Bakuzis E.V. 1969. Forestry viewed in an ecosystem perspective. In: The Ecosystem Concept in Natural Resource Management. Ed. by. George M. Van Dyne. pp. 189-254. Arias S.C. and Binua T.M. 1966. Exotic Gmelina: another fast-grower. Reforestation Monthly 6(1 and 2): 3. Brown W.H. 1919. Vegetation of Philippine mountains. Manila: Bureau of Printing. Caguioa V. 1953. Planting exotic species in the Philippines. Soil resources and forestry, Pacific science congress, vol. 5, p. 499-532. Castillo R.R. 2001. Vegetation analysis of undergrowth plants in lowland forest of Mt. Makiling as a tool in assessing the advance and spread of big leaf mahogany (*Swietenia macrophylla King). Unpublished B.S. Forestry Thesis, UPLB-CFNR. DENR-NBSAP. 1997. Philippine biodiversity: An assessment and plan of action. Bookmark, Inc., Makati City, 298 p. Domingo I.L. 1983. Industrial Pulpwood Plantations. First Asean Forestry Congress, 10-15 October 1983, PICC, Manila, Philippines. P. 18. Gruezo W.S. 2000. Floral Diversity Profile of Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve, Luzon, Philippines. ASEAN Regional Conference on Biodiversity Conservation, 20-21 September 2000, College of Forestry and Natural Resources, U.P. at Los Baños, College, Laguna, PHILIPPINES. p. 3. Hilleshog Forestry AB. 1984. The Palawan botanical expedition, final report. IPAS Final Report, June 1, 1992. Jacobs M. 1975. The world on Luzon’s highest mountains. Lecture in UNESCO-MAB, BIOTROP, Bogor, Indonesia. Kowal N.E. 1975. Shifting cultivation, fire, and pine forest in the Cordillera Central, Luzon, Philippines. Lecture in UNESCO-MAB, BIOTROP, Bogor, Indonesia. Lizardo L. 1960. Results of trial planting of Eucalyptus in the Philippines. The Philippine Journal of Forestry. 16(1-2): 31. Merrill E.D. 1921-26. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants. Manila: Bureau of Science, vol. 4. Merrill E.D. 1945. Plant life of the Pacific world. New York: MacMillan Co., 295 pp. Merrill E.D. and Merritt M.L. 1910. Flora of Mount Pulog. Philippine Journal of Science 5(4-5): 287-403. Newman M.F., Burgess P.F. and Whitmore T.C. 1996. Manuals of dipterocarps for foresters - Philippines. Published by Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh and CIFOR, Jakarta. 124 pp. Ponce S.S. 1933. Mahogany as a reforestation crop. The Makiling Echo 12 (1): 7. Rojo J.P. 1999. Revised lexicon of Philippine trees. Forest Products Research and Development Institute, Department of Science and Technology. 484pp. Tamesis F. and Sulit C. 1937. Reforestation and flood control. The Makiling Echo 16(2): 80-97. Thinley P. 2002. Negative interaction between large leaf mahogany (*Swietenia macrophylla King) and some indigenous tree secies in lowland forest of Mt. Makiling - allelopathy, a possible cause? Unpublished B.S. Forestry Thesis, UPLB-CFNR. Whitford H.N. 1906. The vegetation of the Lamao Forest Reserve. Philippine Journal of Science. 1(4): 373. Whitford H.N. 1911. The forests of the Philippines. Part I. Forest Types and Products. Manila: Bureau of Printing. 94pp. Status of forest invasive species in Sri Lanka N.D.R. Weerawardane and J. Dissanayake Forest Department Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Introduction Sri Lanka has a land area of about 6.5 million hectares. Sri Lanka is a small but biologically diverse country that is recognized as a biodiversity hotspot of global importance for plants. Its varied topography and tropical conditions have given rise to this high level of biodiversity. There are many plant and animal species endemic to the country. Much of the diversity is found in the wet zone located in the southwest parts of the country. Human threats to biodiversity are greatest in this part of the country, due to the dense human population. It has been noted in the past that bio-invasions can have serious negative impacts on the function of these ecosystems. The direct economic consequences are more prominent in the agricultural sector, while the indirect economic consequences will be the loss of biodiversity. The agricultural sector has suffered a lot in the past from intentional or unintentional introductions of alien pests and diseases, including weed species. However, in more recent times attention has been given to the introduction of invasive species and their impacts on biodiversity in the country. General overview of forest types in the country According to the forest cover map prepared in 1992, Sri Lanka’s closed natural forest cover was 23.9 percent of the total land area, which amounts to about 1.5 million hectares. Including sparse forests, the total natural forest cover is 30.9 percent of the land cover, which is around two million hectares. The average rate of deforestation during the past few decades, both planned and unplanned, has been around 42 000 hectares per year (Bandaratillake, 2001). The major natural forest ecosystems and their extent are presented in Table 1. Table 1: Natural forests in Sri Lanka, 1992 Forest type Total area (hectares) Percentage of total land area Bio-climatic zone Closed canopy montane 3 108 0.05 Montane zone Sub montane 68 616 1.04 Submontane zone Lowland rain 141 506 2.14 Low/mid country wet Moist monsoon 243 886 3.69 Low/mid country intermediate Dry monsoon 1 090 981 16.49 Low country dry Riverine 22 435 0.34 Low country wet and dry Mangrove 8 688 0.13 Coastal areas, lagoons Subtotal 1 579 220 23.88 Open canopy sparse 464 076 7.01 Low country dry and arid Total 2 043 296 30.89 The forests in the montane and submontane areas occur at high elevations, located in the central parts of the country. In the montane zone, the height of the canopy is low. The trees are of poor form with dense, spreading, flat-topped crowns. The forest is not of commercial value, rather it is left undisturbed, to serve as protection forest preventing soil erosion and flash flooding in the catchment areas. The genera in both zones include Syzygium, Calophylum, Gordonia, Michelia, etc. Lowland rain forests are rich in biodiversity and represent tropical rain forests that receive a well-distributed rainfall throughout the year. As a result, they develop multi-storey canopy structure with dense understorey. Climbers and epiphytes are prevalent in these forests. Common genera include Dipterocarpus, Mesua, Doona, Shorea, Campnosperma, Vitex, Wormia, Chetocarpus, Anisophyllea, etc. Moist monsoon forests are in the intermediate zone areas, which form a transition zone between the dry and the wet areas. Dry monsoon forests cover a large area of two-thirds of the country. In these forest areas, there is a pronounced moisture deficit period of about four months. Some of the timbers produced in these forests are highly priced. The major genera include Manilkara, Drypetes, Chloroxylon, Berrya, Diospyros, etc. Riverine forests are small in extent and distributed along major rivers in low lying areas. Mangrove forests are comparatively small, but play an important ecological role stabilizing the estuaries and lagoons and providing shelter and breeding grounds for fish, crustaceans and other marine life. Importance and relevance of forest invasive species issues in the country Invasive species are generally exotic or alien species having the ability to compete with and replace native species in natural habitats, thereby threatening native biological diversity. They have special characteristics that enable them to spread rapidly and aggressively and compete with native flora and fauna, to form a dense population that interferes with the natural development of biotic communities. In order to protect biodiversity in the country, Sri Lanka became a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992 and ratified it in 1994. The Ministry of Forestry and Environment was identified as the focal point for activities related to biological diversity. The introduction of alien invasive species - intentionally or unintentionally - can cause a tremendous negative impact on biodiversity in a country like Sri Lanka. A large number of species extinctions can occur through the introduction of invasive species. In addition, some invasive species can contribute to degradation of catchment areas and irrigation systems, incurring severe economic losses. Intentional introductions include deliberate introductions for use in agriculture, forestry, horticulture, fisheries, aquaculture, landscaping, zoos, pet trade, etc. Unintentional introductions include accidental introductions of species through transport, trade, travel, tourism, etc. In Sri Lanka, alien invasive species are particularly important due to following factors (IUCN, 2000): geographically separated small size and island nature of the country; developing status; greater diversity of habitats; high levels of species endemism in the southwest parts of the country; current highly threatened status of many endemic species and their habitats; and increased degradation and fragmentation of natural habitats due to development activities. As some invasions have the potential to become irreversible, the prevention of new introductions is of primary importance, followed by the management of already established species that may pose a conservation threat. Most significant forest invasive species in the country The most significant invasive species and their mode and source of introduction, distribution and affected habitats/ecosystems are presented in Table 2 and Table 3. Table 2: Invasive fauna in forest ecosystems in Sri Lanka Species Mode/source of introduction Distribution Affected habitats/ecosystems Bubalus bubalis (Domestic/feral buffalo) Deliberate; animal husbandry Island-wide Forests Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow trout) Deliberate; sport fishery Montane zone Streams Chitala chitala (Clown knife fish) Negligence; ornamental fish trade Lowland wet zone Ponds, slow-flowing rivers, marshes Hypostomus plecostomus (Plectosomus catfish) Negligence; ornamental fish trade Lowland wet zone Ponds, slow-flowing rivers, marshes Clarias batrachus (Walking cat fish) Negligence; ornamental fish trade Lowland wet zone Marshes, streams Gambusia affinis (Mosqito fish) Deliberate; mosquito control Lowland wet zone Marshes, ditches, streams Poecilia reticulata (Guppy) Deliberate; mosquito control Lowland wet zone Marshes, ditches, streams Oreochromis mossambicus (Tilapia) Deliberate; commercial fishery Island-wide Rivers, marshes, lagoons and estuaries Table 3: Invasive flora in forest ecosystems of Sri Lanka Species Mode/source of introduction Distribution Affected habitats/ecosystems Weldelia triloba(runner) Negligence; ornamental plants Wet and intermediate zone Forest edges Mikania micrantha(wine) Negligence; ornamental plants Montane zone Montane forests Opuntia stricta(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plants Arid zone Thorn scrublands Lantana camara(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plants Island-wide Scrublands, degraded open forests Ulex europaeus(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plant Montane zone Montane forests, wet patana grasslands Eupatorium riparium(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plants Montane zone Montane forests Clidemia hirta(shrub) Unknown Lowland wet zone Rain forests Eupatorium odoratum(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plants Lowland dry and wet zone Forest edges and pathways Mikania calvescens(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plant Submontane zone Disturbed forests Dillenia sufruticosa(shrub) Negligence; horticulturists Lowland wet zone,Riparian areas Marshes, low lying areas Millingtonia hortens(shrub) Negligence; ornamental plant Southern dry and intermediate zone Disturbed forests and scrublands Prosopis juliflora(small tree) Deliberate; afforestation Arid zone Thorn scrublands Annona glabra (small tree/shrubs) Unknown Lowland wet zone Coastal lagoons, marshes Swietenia macrophylla(large tree) Deliberate; forestry/ timber Lowland wet zone Disturbed forests Leucaena leucocephala(small tree) Deliberate; fodder plant, soil rehabilitation Intermediate zone Dry mixed evergreen forests Psidium littorale(treelet) Negligence; ornamental plants Montane zone Montane forests Myroxylon balsamum(tree) Deliberate; forestry Wet and Intermediate zone Forest edges Alstonia macrophylla(tree) Deliberate; forestry Wet and Intermediate zones Secondary forests Mimosa pigra(small tree) Unknown Mid country wet and intermediate zones Wastelands, along river banks Imperata cylindrica(grass) Unknown Island-wide Disturbed forests and scrublands Panicum maximum(grass) Deliberate; fodder Island-wide Disturbed forests and scrublands Bambusa bambos(bamboo) Unknown Mid country areas Disturbed forests and scrublands Ochlandra stridula(bamboo) Unknown Wet zone Disturbed forests Acrostichum aureum(fern) Unknown Lagoon areas Mangrove forests Najas marina(submerged plant) Unknown Coastal areas Lagoons and estuaries Source: Bambaradeniya et al. (1999) and authors’ own observations Biology and life history of the most significant invasive species Grasses Imperata cylindrica, Graminae Imperata is a rapidly spreading, noxious perennial weed in agricultural, forest and wastelands. Once this weed colonizes the land its subsequent propagation takes place by stolons. It poses serious problems to many agricultural crops and forest seedlings in plantation establishment. It is found in most parts of the country. It grows year round and up to 1 metre in height. Propagation is by wind dispersal of seeds and by underground stem parts. Manual control is very difficult and chemical control is fairly successful. Panicum maximum (Guinea grass), Graminae Guinea grass is a ubiquitous perennial weed. It poses a major problem in agriculture and forestry plantation establishment. It has spread to most parts of the country including natural ecosystems, abandoned or degraded lands, forest plantations, etc. When growth is uncontrolled, it can grow up to about 2 metres in height, shading out and out-competing natural or planted seedlings in forests and retarding their establishment and growth. Taller stands can block the access of humans and vehicles. Its faster spread, both by seeds and underground stem parts, threatens natural ecosystems by replacing native plants. In addition, it creates a fire hazard in dry periods, which can also replace natural vegetation in an area. When Guinea grass is burned it re-sprouts and grows rapidly, dominating the area. Its control is extremely difficult unless long-term control measures are taken. Cattle-grazing is somewhat effective in controlling this grass, although this does not eradicate it. Shrubs Lantana camara, Verbanaceae Lantana camara is a plant introduced to Sri Lanka in 1926 through the Royal Botanic gardens of Sri Lanka. Currently a major weed found throughout the country, it has invaded natural ecosystems particularly when open conditions are prevalent. This species is commonly found in dense stands along roadsides and abandoned lands. It is a fast-spreading, thicket-forming, perennial shrub and is somewhat shade tolerant. The weed has invaded the Udawalawe National Park, which is a leading elephant sanctuary of the island, significantly reducing the grazing lands available for the elephants. It has also spread in forest plantations and degraded natural forests interfering with natural regeneration. The spread is influenced by birds eating the fruits. Manual methods are somewhat successful in controlling this grass. Prosopis juliflora (Mesquite), Fabaceae Mesquite was first introduced to Sri Lanka in 1880 and is currently found spreading rapidly in the coastal belts of Southern and Western provinces in the country. It was introduced in the early 1950s to Southern province to improve the saline soils and as ground cover. The species has now become invasive and is a serious threat to natural habitats. This species has severely affected the Bundala National Park, the only wetland in Sri Lanka listed under the Ramsar Convention, affecting all types of vegetation, except sand dunes. It invades disturbed open areas and gradually encroaches on forest interiors. The most seriously invaded vegetation is lagoon marsh, where more than 75 percent of vegetation has been replaced by this species. Some positive aspects have also been observed in this species: it reduces erosion around lagoons, provides resting, feeding and nesting places for the birds and provides fodder for cattle, elephants, birds and monkeys in periods of drought (Seneviratne and Agama, 2001). Ulex europaeus (Gorse), Fabaceae This species was introduced to Sri Lanka in 1888 and has invaded natural ecosysytems in the hill country of Sri Lanka. It is a prickly evergreen shrub with profuse yellow flowers. It reproduces by re-sprouting from stumps and by seed. Heavy seed production and long seed viability make it troublesome to control. It is confined to high altitude areas in the country. The biodiversity of the Horton Plains, a nature reserve, has been significantly affected due to the spread of this invasive plant. Several attempts have been made by community organizations to eradicate this weed by uprooting and burning, however, these efforts have only been marginally successful. Trees Myroxylon balsamum, Fabaceae First reported in the 1920s, Myroxylon has recently been identified as colonizing natural and semi-natural habitats in some parts of the country. It has been planted as a shade tree along roadsides, as windbreaks and in plantations. It has been reported to damage the composition, structure and functions of natural ecosystems. In certain forests, it has developed into mono-specific stands, for example, in Udawattakele Nature Reserve and in some mixed mahogany forests. Specific efforts to manage and control invasive species At present, the identification and prioritization of species is done on an ad hoc basis. There is a lack of proper institutional and legal frameworks to deal with invasive species. Furthermore, there is no coordination among various government institutions that are directly or indirectly involved in dealing with alien invasive species. Currently, there are no concerted efforts to manage invasive species in Sri Lanka, except several isolated attempts to control such species. To deal with this situation, the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources organized a national workshop on Alien Invasive Species (AIS) of Sri Lanka in October 1999. Some of the important recommendations in this workshop are given below: develop a national strategy/action plan and a comprehensive set of clear guidelines to prevent the introduction, eradicate and mitigate the impacts of AIS; conduct a comprehensive capacity building and awareness programme; establish a national database, prepare a national action plan on AIS, and prepare a national weed strategy; review existing legislation and regulations on quarantine practices, plant protection and other relevant Acts and ordinances to avoid the introduction of potential invasive species; make additional funds available for research, awareness and control measures on AIS; develop technologies to enable the use of weeds for productive purposes; and appoint two separate taskforces for alien invasive flora and fauna. A follow-up workshop was held in September 2000 to make an in-depth analysis of the problem. It recommended the development of a national invasive species action plan (NISAP) to overcome the problems of AIS (Marambe, 2000). The workshop participants identified strategies to be included in the NISAP. Certain invasive species have the potential to be utilized in various ways. For example, water plants such as Eichornia, Salvinia, Hydrilla species and grasses such as Imperata and Panicum have the potential to be used as compost manure and mulch. Some are useful in making bio-gas. Species such as Colocasia and Tithonia can be used as organic manure in agricultural fields. Dillenia and Clusia species can be used as good fuelwood sources. Natural forest invasive species such as mahogany and Alstonia are good timber species and used widely in local markets. For prevention, eradication and control of alien invaders, Bambaradeniya (2000) suggested the following actions: 1. Coordination, policy and legislative initiatives: establish a coordinating body, which could oversee all aspects and issues pertaining to invasive species; address the gaps and conflicts in policies and legislation; and develop new policies as appropriate. 2. Actions to prevent future detrimental introductions: collect data on alien invasive fauna and flora in other parts of the world; train personnel to detect alien biota; adoption of strict quarantine procedures; strengthening of the current legislation; and conduct awareness-building programmes. 3. Actions to control/eradicate established invaders: initiate active scientific research on the management and control of alien invasive species; adoption of control measures, supported by scientific research; and regular monitoring of natural ecosystems infested by AIS to determine the status of invaders. Assessment of costs associated with specific pest and disease incursions In the case of forestry, no assessments have been carried out with regard to the costs of damage caused by the alien invasive species. In general, no special pest or disease invasions have been recorded in the past, except some common pests found in teak and mahogany. Forest health, quarantine and sanitary/phytosanitary regulations and procedures In Sri Lanka, the legal basis for plant protection and plant quarantine (Plant Protection Ordinance) dates as far back as 1924. Plant quarantine ordinance is enacted by the Department of Agriculture in Sri Lanka. It makes provisions against the introduction of weeds, pests and diseases and for the sanitation of plants in the country. The ordinance has been progressively amended in 1956 and 1981. However, several devastating pests have established themselves in the country during the last decade. Therefore the ordinance was totally revised in 1999 to make adequate provisions to cope with current trends in the movement of flora and fauna, as a result of the increase in international trade and traffic. The plant protection ordinance of Sri Lanka aims to prevent the introduction of exotic pests including insects, diseases and weeds, but places less emphasis on plant species that can have serious negative effects on biodiversity of natural habitats. The Fauna and Flora Act was amended in 1964, and again in 1970. It makes provisions for the establishment and maintenance of national reserves, national parks and jungle corridors. The policy on imports of seed and planting material was revised by the Department of Agriculture in 1991, and the New Seed Act was formulated in 1999. Key institutions involved with invasive species In Sri Lanka, there are several institutions involved with alien invasive species - mainly those involved with biodiversity conservation. These are listed below: 1. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources 2. Forest Department 3. Agriculture Department 4. University of Peradeniya 5. University of Sri Jayawardanepura 6. IUCN, Sri Lanka 7. National Science Foundation References Bambaradeniya C.N.B., Ekanayake S.P. and Gunawardane J. 1999. Preliminary observations on the status of alien invasive biota in natural ecosystems of Sri Lanka. Report on alien invasive species, GBF-SSEA. Colombo. IUCN Regional biodiversity programme, Asia, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Bambaradeniya C.N.B. 2000. Alien invasive species. Loris. 22: No 4, pp 3-7. FAO. 2001. Forests out of bounds: Impacts and effectiveness of logging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific. RAP publication 2001/08. FAO: Bangkok.205p. Marambe B. 1999 (Ed). Proceedings of the National Workshop on Alien Invasive Species in Sri Lanka. Ministry of Forestry and Environment: Sri Lanka. Marambe B. 2000 (Ed). Proceedings of the Symposium "Alien Invasive Species of Sri Lanka": Impacts on Ecosystems and Management. Ministry of Forestry and Environment: SriLanka. Seneviratne G.I., and Algama A.L.M.N.S. 2001. Invasive species Prosopis juliflora in the coastal regions of Hambantota district. Sri Lankan Biodiversity Review. Volume 1:79-83. Invasive species in the United States of America - 2003 David F. Thomas Forest Health Protection, USDA Forest Service Scope of problem The threat of aquatic and terrestrial invasive species[4] is one of the greatest natural resources concerns in the United States of America. Their prevention and control is operationally critical to meeting the stewardship mission of the USDA Forest Service. Thousands of species of invasive plants, invertebrates, fishes, diseases, birds, and mammals threaten ecosystem function, economic stability, and human health. Second only to direct habitat destruction, invasive species are the greatest threat to native biodiversity and native communities, nutrient cycling, hydrology, and natural fire regimes. Direct and indirect impacts of invasive species have contributed to the decline of approximately 46 percent of all listed threatened and endangered species. Public recreational opportunities and experiences have been severely degraded by rapid infestations of invasive species, in many cases hampering access, reducing recreational quality and enjoyment and decreasing the aesthetic values of public use areas. Nationally, invasive species cost Americans over US$137 billion each year, with a large portion of the impacts affecting public lands and agriculture. As the largest land managing agency within the Department of Agriculture, the Forest Service has a significant role in battling these insidious invaders and has stepped forward to work collaboratively at the local, state and national levels. The economic threats from invasive species to Forest Service timber and other production operations are significant and cannot be marginalized, and the linkage between the spread of invasive species and increased wildfire frequency and intensity has been well documented. It has been estimated that invasive plants occupy nearly 133 million acres (53.8 million hectares) of national forests and rangelands, other federal ownerships, state, tribal and private lands, and are spreading at a rate of nearly 1.7 million acres (688 000 hectares) per year. It is estimated that annual losses associated with invasive plants total US$13 billion. Insect and disease problems continue to increase and plague millions of acres of private, state, and national forests in nearly every region of the nation. Due to the broad range of pathways for invasive species to enter and become established within our nation’s forests and rangelands, the rate of new infestations is growing exponentially. Also, due to overstocking of many forested areas, the threat of infestations by insects, pathogens and invasive plants is greatly enhanced. It is estimated that 70 million acres (28.3 million hectares) of the nation’s forests are threatened by infestations of insects and disease mortality, including 21 million acres (8.5 million hectares) by western bark beetles. Compliance with the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act governing agency actions, and subsequent appeals and litigation have slowed the USDA Forest Service efforts in completing many projects designed to improve forest health. Introduction America’s forests cover 747 million acres (302 million hectares), of which 20 percent are on National Forest System lands, 49 percent are owned by non-industrial landowners, 8 percent by states, 13 percent by other federal agencies and 10 percent by industrial landowners (Figure 1). This forest land is an invaluable asset to the American people, providing water, recreation, wildlife habitat, and future timber. Maintaining the health and sustainability of natural resources is a national security issue and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service remains committed to the protection of these resources. America’s forests continue to face many catastrophic risks, including fires, invasive species and fragmentation. The Forest Service definition of a healthy, sustainable forest is: a condition wherein a forest has the capacity, across the landscape, for renewal, for recovery from a wide range of disturbances, and for retention of its ecological resiliency while meeting current and future needs of people for desired levels of values, uses, products, and services. The USDA Forest Service works collaboratively with state foresters, state departments of agriculture, and other USDA agencies, including the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) to protect America’s forests from native and introduced insects, pathogens and invasive plants. The FHP programme provides services to federal, state, tribal, and private managers of forest lands. Services include technical information and assistance in management and control of forest insects, diseases, and invasive plants; forest health monitoring; technology development; and pesticide use. This report provides a summary of current forest ecosystem health issues in America’s forests. There are three general areas of concern: non-native invasive insects and pathogens; invasive plants; and outbreaks of native insects. Non-native invasive insects and pathogens Global trade and travel are causing an unprecedented movement of animals, plants and micro-organisms across continents and oceans. All too often, these non-native species are invasive and can cause impacts that are extremely costly to both the U.S. economy and environment. When brought into new ecosystems, non-native invasive species have no natural enemies and can cause extensive damage. Nearly 50 percent of the plants and animals on the federal endangered species list have been negatively impacted by non-native invasive plants, animals, insects and microbes. These species threaten biodiversity and have caused catastrophic damage to agriculture, forest products, recreation and natural resources across North America. Examples include yellow star thistle, leafy spurge, gypsy moth, American chestnut blight and white pine blister rust. Figure 1: United States of America forest cover types In February 1999, the President issued Executive Order 13112 on Invasive Species, establishing the National Invasive Species Council. The council provides, for the first time, a coordinated effort by its 10 member departments. In October 2001, the council completed a management plan, Meeting the Invasive Species Challenge, to address the Executive Order. The plan is designed to raise public awareness and control the introduction and spread of non-native invasive pests. According to the plan, the economic cost of invasive species is estimated at US$137 billion every year. The USDA Forest Service alone spends more than US$40 million annually to control the introduction and spread of non-native species and approximately US$40 million for native species. The control efforts include refining, developing and deploying a broad array of technologies to minimize the impacts of invasive species. Technology includes remote sensing, computer modeling, mechanical treatments, bio-pesticides, biological controls and conventional pesticides. The USDA Forest Service and APHIS have started an early detection and rapid response programme to detect and promptly eradicate any new invasive species. Invasive pests are dealt with as aggressively as possible, within budget constraints, before they become well established. Selected examples of major invasive insects affecting U.S. forests Emerald ash borer The invasive emerald ash borer, a recently introduced pest, is threatening ash trees (Fraxinas spp.) in North American forests, urban plantings and shelterbelts. Critical, time-sensitive research is needed on the borer’s basic biology, ecology and management. At the present time, information is insufficient to support ongoing detection efforts and to develop effective strategies for containing the infestation, reducing beetle density, or eradicating this pest. In 2002, the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) was discovered in dead and dying ash in a 5-county region around Detroit, Michigan and in neighbouring Windsor, Ontario, Canada. In August 2003, Forest Service research confirmed its presence in Toledo, Ohio. The borer, which was introduced into Michigan about five years ago, is native to China, Korea, Japan and other Asian countries. A recent federal and state survey of ash in southwest Michigan determined that the outbreak covers over 2000 square miles (518 000 hectares). In southwest Michigan, 49.1 percent of the trees surveyed, and an estimated 5.2 million ash trees, are dead or declining. The State of Michigan has quarantined movement of ash trees and ash wood products from the five counties around Detroit to reduce the chances of transporting emerald ash borer outside the currently infested area. In Michigan, only ash has been attacked - in Asia, elm, walnut and chestnut may be attacked. The borer may have a major impact on forests across the United States of America. Ash is a major component of natural and urban forests in the east and central United States of America and urban areas in the west. The potential value loss in nine major urban centres is estimated at US$20-60 billion for 30-60 million ash trees. Losing urban ash is also critical, because ash has been the primary replacement tree for American elm. Information on biology, detection and control of emerald ash borer is limited to less than a paragraph in the Chinese literature. Currently, infestations are detected by visually examining each tree for exit holes left by emerging adults. "Control" is limited to removal and destruction of infested trees, although preliminary tests conducted this year indicate that tree injections or aphids may work. More research is necessary to obtain information on the basic biology and ecology of emerald ash borer and tools for assessing ecosystem risk, detection and control that managers must have to formulate effective management strategies. The Undersecretary of Natural Resources and Environment at USDA and Chief of the Forest Service are aware of the urgency of the problem and the need for emergency research funds to obtain vital information. APHIS and the Forest Service are planning to submit a request to the Secretary for authority to use Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) emergency funds. Scolytus schevyrewi Scolytus schevyrewi is native to eastern Russia, China and Korea. The beetle was first collected in rapid detection bark beetle pheromone traps set in Aurora, Colorado (a suburb of Denver) and Ogden, Utah, starting in late April 2003. It is considered very invasive. Dr James LeBonte, Oregon Department of Agriculture, first identified the beetle as new to the United States of America. At this time, there is no common name for this beetle and it is currently not known how damaging this insect can potentially be. APHIS has increased its detection effort for this bark beetle in Colorado, Utah, and several adjacent states. The Forest Health Protection (FHP) rapid detection group along with staff of other FHP offices in the West and the Colorado State Forest Service are assisting APHIS. In Colorado, S. schevyrewi has been collected all along the Front Range from Pueblo to Fort Collins and has been found in Durango in the southwest and in Lamar, a town in southeastern Colorado. In Utah, the bark beetle has been found in Ogden, Salt Lake City, and in eastern Utah. The beetle was found in samples of fresh wood from American elm, rock elm and Siberian elm. The biology of S. schevyrewi is similar to that of S. multistriatus. The beetle completes a generation in about two months (fresh attacks in late-April and early-May in the Denver area, and brood emergence by early-July). The USDA Forest Service expects that S. schevyrewi will complete two to three generations per year in the Denver area. The literature suggests that the beetle has a feeding period on branch junctions like that of S. multistriatus. The egg galleries are very similar between these two bark beetle species. Sudden oak death Sudden oak death (SOD) - a disease caused by Phytophthora ramorum, a newly discovered pathogen of uncertain origin - has killed thousands of trees in coastal, mixed evergreen forests and urban-wildland interfaces in California and southern Oregon. It kills a range of tree species - including coast live oak, California black oak, shreve oak, tan oak, and madrone - and infects several other plant species including rhododendron, manzanita, California bay laurel, buckeye, evergreen huckleberry, and big leaf maple. The disease degrades ecological processes and watershed functions, and lowers forest productivity. It reduces aesthetic, recreational and economic values and leaves forests susceptible to invasive plant infestations. Dead trees add fuel to an already high fire risk. There is presently insufficient knowledge of how the disease spreads and its biology. It is known to be spreading rapidly and has been found in nursery stock (particularly rhododendrons) in a few ornamental nurseries, raising concerns that it could be transported to and infect the extensive, susceptible oak forests of the Eastern United States of America. The oak-hardwood forest is the largest forest type in the United States of America. The USDA Forest Service has spent over US$5 million to research, monitor, manage, and educate the public about SOD. The USDA Forest Service is also working closely with APHIS to assist in implementing quarantine and to regulate the transportation of wood, bark, and nursery stock that might harbor the SOD pathogen. California and Oregon implemented state regulations, prior to the release of federal regulations, to prevent the spread of this disease. The states are coordinating their respective regulations with APHIS. The USDA Forest Service (through the California Oak Mortality Taskforce, a public-private coalition) is leading federal, state, and local partners in implementing effective SOD research, monitoring, management and education programmes to protect the nation’s oak forests. In 2000, USDA Forest Service provided funds to help investigate the cause of this disease. Investigations led to the discovery that the primary cause of SOD is a previously undescribed species of Phytophthora. In 2001, the USDA Forest Service provided additional funds to determine the extent and severity of SOD in oaks and other native plants in California and Oregon. The funds were also used to develop diagnostic and survey methodologies for the SOD pathogen, evaluate fungicide treatments and other management strategies, and assess the fire risk and other ecosystem effects of accelerated oak mortality. The USDA Forest Service continues to support cooperative efforts in 2002 to monitor the disease development and spread. Forest health monitoring surveys detected the pathogen in southwestern Oregon. In the autumn of 2001, the Oregon Department of Forestry attempted to eradicate the pathogen. Monitoring efforts to determine the effectiveness of the eradication treatment are underway. White pine blister rust White pine blister rust (WPBR), an introduced fungus from Asia, has decimated several species of native white pines across the American West and Canada. Native white pines are an integral part of the natural biodiversity of western forests. The ecological and economic impacts have been most acute on the two largest commercial species - western white pine and sugar pine. WPBR entered North America through the east and west coasts on European nursery stock around 1910. In the west, it quickly spread from Vancouver, British Colombia, Canada, south through the Cascades and Sierra Nevada, and east into the Rocky Mountain States of Idaho, Montana, Colorado, Wyoming, and New Mexico. The pest has also inflicted severe ecological damage in high-altitude whitebark and limber pine forests. In susceptible stands, WPBR can kill over 95 percent of mature trees, effectively altering a forest ecosystem forever. Strategies for control include: restoration of white pine forests through development and planting of white pines, which are genetically resistant to WPBR. More than 8 000 acres (3 237 hectares) of forest lands have been planted with resistant seed from seed orchards and proven resistant seed trees; restoration of white pines through deployment of silviculturally integrated practices, such as pruning the infected plantation trees and planting in low hazard areas; and extensive ongoing resistance-breeding programmes, run by the USDA Forest Service, that began in the 1950s. These breeding programmes continue to discover and develop WPBR-resistant varieties of white pines. These programmes saved the western white pine and sugar pine from extinction. In California, a total of 1 329 proven resistant seed trees have been identified, and two seed orchards have been established. In the Pacific Northwest, the resistance-breeding programme supports 40 seed orchards. The Rocky Mountain region has identified more than 3 100 trees and planted 96 255 acres (38 953 hectares) with WPBR-resistant white pine seedlings. Gypsy moth Since 1930, gypsy moth has defoliated more than 80 million acres (32 million hectares) of forests in the eastern United States of America, with most of this damage occurring during the past 20 years. A hardwood defoliator native to Europe and Asia, gypsy moth arrived in the United States of America in the 1800s, established itself in the oak forests of southern New England, and then spread south and west across 19 states. Occasionally, it appears in western forests, but has been successfully eradicated each time. Unfortunately, gypsy moth is now a permanent resident of eastern forests. During outbreaks, moth populations often outpace the few natural enemies, parasites, predators, and pathogens that attack them. The gypsy moth feeds on the delicate first flush of leaves in the spring. It prefers oaks, but it will feed on 500 species of woody plants. The attacked trees become highly susceptible to secondary attacks from other insects and pathogens, often resulting in death. The deaths alter the forest ecosystem dramatically; usually dead oaks are replaced not with more oaks, but with other species that do not produce as much mast for wildlife. In response to this pest, the USDA Forest Service adopted the following strategies: implementing programmes and providing technical and financial assistance to states and other federal agencies to suppress and slow the spread of gypsy moth in the East; and detecting and eradicating - along with APHIS, state governments, and other federal agencies - localized introductions of gypsy moth in the West. A gypsy moth virus and aerial treatments with biological and chemical insecticides conducted over 460 000 acres (186 155 hectares) in 2001 have effectively suppressed or slowed the spread of gypsy moth in nine northeastern states. The USDA Forest Service’s gypsy moth slow-the-spread programme slows the southwesterly spread of the insect by 60 percent through concentrated monitoring and by using environmentally benign mating disruption techniques. After discovering adult gypsy moths in pheromone traps in seven western states in 2000, steps were taken that eradicated the pest from these states. The USDA Forest Service and many other cooperators continue to develop new controls and delivery methods to use against this pest. Hemlock woolly adelgid The hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA) is one of the most serious forest pests threatening eastern forests. The insect defoliates eastern hemlock; trees can die within four years of infestation. Native to China and Japan and introduced to the American Northwest in the 1920s, it has spread quickly across the northern United States of America. Fortunately, western hemlock proved resistant to HWA. Unfortunately, eastern hemlock is highly susceptible to HWA. Beginning in the 1950s, the pest began a destructive march north and south through eastern forests. Today, it infests nearly half of the hemlock forests across 11 states from Massachusetts to South Carolina, and as far west as the southwest tip of West Virginia. Eastern hemlock is a pivotal species in eastern forest ecosystems. It is especially important along streams and creeks, where its shade helps control water temperatures - thereby helping to sustain aquatic ecosystems. Eastern hemlock spans the eastern United States of America from Maine, west to northern Wisconsin, and south along the Appalachians to north Georgia. The span also includes small pockets in Indiana and Mississippi. To arrest the pest’s advance, the USDA Forest Service has: implemented spray programmes on individual trees wherever practical and environmentally safe, such as in non-riparian settings; identified, developed, and released HWA-specific biological control agents; and developed an integrated plan to address the problem, as funding permits. The USDA Forest Service identified a number of pathogens and predators native to the United States of America that would attack HWA. The most effective to date is the Japanese ladybird beetle (Pseudoscymnus tsugae). This predator attacks only HWA, will feed on all stages (egg to adult) of HWA and, in sufficient numbers, will consume up to 97 percent of a HWA population. Since 1999, the USDA Forest Service has raised and released over half-a-million beetles in nine states. Additional research, development, and subsequent management actions are expected to reduce the impacts of this destructive pest. Invasive plants Thousands of invasive plant species have been introduced in the United States of America. About 1 400 are recognized as pests that pose significant threats to the biodiversity of forest and grassland ecosystems. Federal natural resource agencies list 94 species of exotic plants as noxious weeds, and many more appear on state lists. Experts estimate that well over 100 million acres (40 million hectares) are infested with invasive plants, and that as much as 20 million additional acres (8.1 million hectares) are being added every year. An estimated 3.6 million acres of National Forest System lands are infested. Many of the invasive plants are not native to the United States of America. Therefore, they have no natural enemies to limit their reproduction and spread. Although rangelands are the primary targets of many invasive plants, they are showing up everywhere - in forests, parks, preserves, wilderness areas, wildlife refuges, croplands and urban spaces. Invasive plants threaten two-thirds of the habitat of all threatened and endangered species. Two federally coordinated efforts are: the Federal Interagency Committee for the Management of Noxious and Exotic Weeds (FICMNEW) - comprised of 17 federal agencies with a common goal to develop biologically sound techniques to manage invasive plants on all lands; and the National Fire Plan - focused on rehabilitating and restoring forests and rangelands, specifically reducing the spread of noxious weeds. In 2001, the USDA Forest Service spent over US$27 million in implementing provisions of the National Fire Plan to prevent and control the spread of noxious weeds on more than 145 000 acres (58 000 hectares) of National Forest System lands. Part of these funds, US$3.5 million, was allocated to Idaho and Montana to protect approximately 93 000 acres (37 635 hectares) of state and private lands from invasive weeds. The USDA Forest Service and its cooperators are conducting extensive research and development on biological control agents for use against many invasive plants, such as mile-a-minute weed, a major problem in five northeastern states. Biological control agents are showing some success in slowing the spread of invasive plants, such as leafy spurge in the West. Selected examples of invasive plants affecting U.S. forests Leafy spurge Leafy spurge is a classic non-native, invasive plant. Arriving in North America from Eurasia in the 1890s, it now infests over 2.5 million acres (1.01 million hectares) of rangeland in southern Canada and the northern United States of America. At maturity, it can reach heights of 7 feet (2 meters). Leafy spurge can kill cattle and horses, and its sap can cause irritation to the eyes, mouths, and digestive systems of all domestic and wild grazing animals, except goats and sheep. The sap can also cause blistering, severe dermatitis and permanent blindness among humans. Seedpods explode when touched, scattering seeds up to 15 feet. It has a nutrient-storing taproot system that can reach soil depths of 20 feet (6.1 meters). Pulling the plant actually encourages it to spread. Although conventional herbicides are effective against leafy spurge, they have a limited use. Due to this limited use, the USDA Agricultural Research Service, in cooperation with APHIS, developed and evaluated integrated approaches to managing leafy spurge. Now a cooperator, the USDA Forest Service, is researching and applying several biological control agents to suppress the pest’s spread, including: grazing goats and sheep; fungal controls that kill the plant by causing root rot; and flea beetles that feed specifically on leafy spurge. Of these three, the flea beetles appear to be most effective against this pest, especially when used as an integral part of a pest management approach that includes grazing by sheep and goats and use of conventional herbicides, wherever possible. Imported from Asia, beetle populations have been established in Montana, the Dakotas, and Wyoming. Adult insects weaken the plants by attacking leaves and stems, and the larvae feed upon the roots. The USDA Forest Service and other cooperators are refining laboratory techniques so that the beetles can be mass-produced. Mile-a-minute weed Mile-a-minute weed is a prickly, annual vine that, true to its name, grows very rapidly and overpowers virtually all vegetation in its path. Originally from Asia, it first appeared on the west coast in the 1890s. In 1946, it was found in nurseries in Pennsylvania. It has spread to New York, Ohio, Maryland, New Jersey, Virginia, West Virginia, Delaware, and the District of Columbia. Seeds are spread by birds and rodents and are carried in rivers and streams. The plant is an excellent climber and easily overpowers, engulfs, and displaces much of the native flora in its path. It invades nurseries, forest openings, railroads, utility rights-of-way, roadsides, and riverbanks. It also threatens forest regeneration and recreational activities. In short, mile-a-minute weed is degrading plant diversity in North America. Controlling the spread of mile-a-minute weed presents a tremendous challenge to forest and rangeland managers. The USDA Forest Service and its cooperators are working diligently to identify and apply effective biological controls to use against this non-native pest, including: identifying over 20 varieties of fungi that attack and/or kill the weed. Additional tests on the fungi are planned; and evaluating three insects from China known to attack the weed. One of the insects in particular - a weevil - shows promise for future release. Outbreaks of native insects Although native insects don’t fall into the definition of invasives species, they are an important damaging agent in the United States of America. Examples including southern pine beetle and western bark beetles are causing significant mortality. Native insects such as bark beetles, in the West, and southern pine beetle, in the South, act as "agents of change" in coniferous forests. At the endemic level, they play a critical role in the development, aging, and rebirth of entire forests. At the landscape level, insect-caused mortality contributes to structural and mosaic diversity within ecosystems. Insects can also cause major disturbances within U.S. forests. For example, tree mortality due to bark beetle outbreaks can be extensive, affecting thousands of acres. Certain circumstances can exert uncommon stress on forests and predispose them to extraordinary insect outbreaks and damage. These circumstances include drought, overstocking, and large areas of aging forest. During the last decade, several of these circumstances have arisen simultaneously, causing extensive tree mortality. In turn, that mortality has threatened wildlife, endangered and threatened species habitat, and degraded recreational quality. The increased mortality has contributed to considerable fuel accumulation, which in turn increases the risk of catastrophic fires. In 2001, the USDA Forest Service spent about US$10 million to suppress and prevent bark beetle outbreaks. The USDA Forest Service has developed management plans to address the problem in an integrated manner and will implement these long-term plans as funding permits. Southern pine beetle Southern pine beetle (SPB) (Dendroctonus frontalis) is the most destructive forest pest in the South. Over 90 million acres (36 million hectares) of southern forests are at a moderate-to-high risk of SPB infestation. In 2001, due to a combination of a mild winter and a prolonged drought, the South experienced its most severe and prolonged SPB outbreak in history. SPB infested tens of thousands of acres and caused over US$200 million in damages. A single SPB "spot" (outbreak) can spread very quickly and cover up to 1 000 acres in one season. The situation has been especially dire in Alabama, where more than 25 000 SPB spots have been detected. In the Southern Appalachian Mountains, SPB has killed thousands of acres of pines. It has killed more than 70 percent of the pine forest habitat of the red cockaded woodpecker, a federally listed endangered species, in the Daniel Boone National Forest in southern Kentucky. In response, the USDA Forest Service has: stepped up its funding of programmes to detect, suppress, and prevent SPB infestation and restore southern pine forests; and modernized and improved computer modeling and tracking technology - including the Southern Pine Beetle Information System (SPBIS), which enables national forest field staffs to quickly log information about SPB spots and schedule, execute, and monitor treatments on those spots. In 2001, the USDA Forest Service doubled its financial commitment from the previous year and provided over US$13 million to fund SPB suppression projects on federal, state, and private lands across the South. A comprehensive plan focusing on prevention and restoration has been developed and will be implemented as funding permits. Mountain pine beetle in Colorado The native mountain pine beetle (MPB) (Dendroctonus ponderosae) kills more pines in the American West than any other bark beetle. A regional assessment conducted by USDA Forest Service staff of the forests around the wildland-urban interface near Vail found that almost all of the 34 000 acres (13 759 hectares) of lodgepole pine in the area were at moderate to high risk of MPB infestation because of tree age, density and drought. Vail, Colorado, the site of the 1999 World Alpine Ski Championships, is a world-class recreation setting. Vail also has some of the most valuable real estate in the United States of America. Among Vail’s natural treasures is the nearby White River National Forest - a large, and mostly wild, expanse of forest land. Increases in MPB infestations among Vail’s lodgepole pine forests started in 1996. Increases in MPB infestation were also detected in the forest around the Steamboat Springs area. The management of these outbreaks highlighted the importance of early communication and better understanding of science-based management methods to implement suppression and restoration practices within the wildland-urban interface. Sensitive to community concerns, while recognizing the urgent need to address the growing MPB problem, the USDA Forest Service: initiated a cooperative effort to address landowner and public concerns with the Colorado State Forest Service, the Town of Vail, and the ski area management company, Vail Associates; and devised and implemented a comprehensive plan to address the MPB problem. Since 1997, the USDA Forest Service has provided technical assistance through the Colorado State Forest Service. This assistance has helped implement prevention and suppression programmes on private property, within the White River National Forest, and on property owned by the Town of Vail. The USDA Forest Service has also conducted programmes to peel and remove bark from beetle-infested trees in isolated locations, conducted field trials to identify and deploy pheromones effective against MPB, and applied insecticides to select individual trees. In April 2002, the USDA Forest Service published a "Western bark beetle report: a plan to protect and restore Western forests", which addresses the prevention, suppression and restoration needs related to bark beetle outbreaks. The USDA Forest Service is an active member of the Bark Beetle Information Taskforce that helps residents of Routt County and surrounding areas understand the potential effects of bark beetles on national forests and state and private lands. The taskforce was formed in 1999 to provide the public with information about bark beetles and potential tree mortality so that they can make informed decisions about protecting their private property and provide meaningful input on proposed actions on public lands. Risk map A risk map for insect and disease potential within the United States of America is presented in Figure 2. It depicts where USDA Forest Service scientists predict mortality will occur over the next 15 years. Areas in dark gray will experience at least 25 percent mortality over and above normal levels (under 1 percent per year) due to the actions of insects and pathogens. It is a coarse-filtered map and, with other data, is used to plan where treatments will take place. Based upon our definition of risk, it depicts about 70 million acres (28 million hectares) at risk out of a total of 749 million acres (303 million hectares) of forest land in the United States of America. Four pests are responsible for 66 percent of the risk acres: gypsy moth in the East, southern pine beetle in the South, root disease in the Interior West and bark beetles in the West. Figure 2: Risk map Forest Service budget for 2004 The budget for combating invasive species is presented in Table 1. The figures are in thousands of dollars and include both native and non-native invasive species. Table 1: USDA Forest Service 2004 budget for combating invasive species Forest Service programmes 2001 Actual 2002 Current Estimate FY2003 President’s Budget FY2004 President’s Budget Forest and rangeland research 13 183 10 034 7 940 14 540 International programmes 575 575 575 575 State and private forestry · Forest health 20600 40 121 45 000 59 152 · Pest mgmt. emergency 12 472 0 0 0 · Emerging pest and pathogen fund 0 0 11 968 1 Total Forest Service 54 830 61 130 81 683 95 535 [4] Definition of Invasives Species: An invasive species is defined as a species that is 1) non-native to the ecosystem under consideration and 2) whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health (Executive Order 13112). http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae944e/ae944e0a.htm#TopOfPage Country report on the forestry invasive species situation in Vanuatu Ruben Bakeo and Francis Qarani Department of Forests, Department of Quarantine Introduction Invasive plant and animal species are a global concern because of their ability to interrupt biological and ecological balances and cause havoc to receiving environments. Despite the relatively long history of introduction of exotic species into the Pacific Islands, it was not until recently that efforts have been made to address them. This is true for Vanuatu, particularly with regard to invasive species that impact on forests. This report presents the forestry invasive species situation in Vanuatu. The report begins with a general overview of forest types in the country. This is followed by a list and description of the most significant forest invasive species. Following this, mention is made of the importance and relevance accorded to forest invasive species issues in Vanuatu. The final section discusses efforts to manage and control invasive species, highlighting the key institutions or bodies involved - and the laws, policies and mechanisms employed - in addressing the threat posed by these species. No attempt is made to quantify the costs involved in management and control of these species, because of the lack of information on costs. The report concludes that increased efforts need to be made to strengthen the management and control measures required. Emphasis should be on forging an integrated approach, one also backed with much-needed external assistance. Forest Types Data from a forest inventory conducted from 1990 to 1993, show that around 70 percent of Vanuatu is covered by woody vegetation, half of which is closed forests with the remainder being discontinuous shrubs, secondary forest and thickets of low trees. Vanuatu has in excess of thirty forest types. These can be put into three major groups in terms of land area occupied: thickets - occupying more than 433 000 hectares (35 percent) of Vanuatu’s land area; mid-height forests totalling of 205 307 hectares (16 percent); and low forest covering 234 089 hectares (19 percent). The remaining land area is mostly man-made vegetation or bare ground (more than 20 percent), grassland and scrub. Commercially exploitable forest is estimated to be about 35 percent of forest cover, and 10 percent of the total land area is covered by primary forests. Major areas of native forests occur on the larger islands of Santo, Malekula, Erromango and Efate, with smaller areas on other islands. There is immense pressure on some timber species on the larger islands, where harvesting is concentrated. In 1998, for instance, 92 percent of logs harvested were of just two species, Endospermum medullosum (whitewood or basswood), and Antiaris toxicaria (known in Vanuatu, as milk tree). Many landowners are not keen on reforestation or afforestation and have used their logged forest lands for alternative activities like commercial agriculture. Natural regeneration is not yet a priority. The plantation forest estate is small, with currently some 1 000 hectares planted. As part of its national forest policy (NFP) the Department of Forests (DoF) is targeting the establishment of 20 000 hectares of planted trees in the next 20 years. Many smallholders - and a few foreign investors - are actively engaged in tree planting. Negotiations are continuing with several companies, to encourage investment in commercial timber plantations. Discussions have also been held lately, about the possibility of engaging in wood-energy plantations. Among the trees encouraged for planting by the DoF are Endospermum medullosum (whitewood or basswood), Pinus caribaea (pine), Agathis macrophylla (kauri) and Santalum austro-caledonicum (sandalwood). Fruit/timber trees such as Terminalia catappa (tavoa or Indian almond) and several others are encouraged, to increase economic and other gains from forest resources. These local supply plantations are located throughout Vanuatu and range in age from12 to 25 years. The forests of Vanuatu are less complex, in terms of biodiversity, compared with forests in larger countries. Human activities are already rapidly diminishing and altering the forest cover and biodiversity, so that the threat posed by invasive species aggravates an already very worrying situation. It is difficult to quantify the invasive-induced threat confronting Vanuatu, whether it is to forests alone or all the country’s ecosystems. For forests and other vegetation in Vanuatu, the challenge brought about by invasive species is real and immense. The DoF, other government agencies, and regional and international entities are mobilizing resources in efforts to make sustainable management and conservation of forests a reality. However, invasive species add dimensions to the challenges of sustainable forestry. Aside from traditional forest management concerns, such as declining forest cover and imbalance between utilization and reforestation, alien species are increasingly becoming a concern, posing problems that require additional resources and even new strategies to address. Furthermore, given that some 28 percent of Vanuatu is already under man-made vegetation or bare ground, grassland and shrubs, the chances for the spread of invasive plant species into these vegetation types is greatly enhanced. This is because many invasive species tend to thrive in disturbed forests. If thickets, which already occupy more than 35 percent of land area, are also considered as prone to domination by invasive plants like Miremia peltata (big lif rop), then invasive species are indeed worthy of serious attention nationally. Significant forest invasive species Invasive species that impact on the forests and related biodiversity of Vanuatu are numerous. A number of points need to be noted prior to enumerating and describing the impacts and significance of these species. First, in compiling this report, it was not possible to establish if any of the fungi and diseases that threaten sustainable forestry and biodiversity in Vanuatu are alien or indigenous. Second, it is difficult to list these species in any priority because of the variations in their impacts and the limited understanding of the extent of their impacts on forests. Third, some invasive species are yet to register observable impacts on the forests, and their distribution is yet to be ascertained. Invasive plants Of all invasive plants in Vanuatu, perhaps the most widely cited pest is Cordia alliodora (Ecuador laurel or salmwood). Introduced as a forestry tree to Vanuatu in the 1970s, this species has now become dominant and is considered a serious pest in locations where it was planted. Planting trials were initiated on the islands of Santo, Vanua Lava, Mota Lava, Ureparapara, Malekula, Ambae, Maewo, Pentecost, Efate, Epi and Eromango. These are the major islands of Vanuatu. The introduction of this Central American tree is a classic example of an aid programme gone wrong, especially now that there is no lucrative market to sell the 800 hectares of stock planted. Cordia alliodora was introduced with the best intentions, but failed to live up to expectations for various reasons, probably linked to climatic differences between Central America and Vanuatu. It is becoming a nuisance as it slowly penetrates natural forests. It is a species that is multiplying at a faster rate than it is being harvested. Communities on a number of islands, particularly, Eromango and Maewo, have made formal complaints. Cordia alliodora is widely distributed meaning that if unchecked it could trigger an immense biodiversity problem. Another invasive plant species that is common, particularly in the drier parts of certain islands, is Leucaena leucocephala (kasis). Also known as the "conflict tree", this species was widely promoted as, among other things, a leguminous (nitrogen fixating) tree, cattle feed and fuel-wood source. Leucaena leucocephala can form dense monospecific thickets and is very difficult to eradicate once established, rendering extensive areas unusable and inaccessible. This plant is very competitive, has a high rate of regeneration, and is threatening native plants in some areas. Merremia peltata (big lif rop) is a vigorous creeping vine that may have been introduced to the islands during World War II, by the American army, for camouflage purposes. It is a real threat to forests because it strangles vegetation. Merremia peltata kills forests on sites disturbed by man, and where the canopy is naturally opened as a result of factors like dying trees and the impacts of cyclones. It is one of the most important weeds of plantation forestry and is also found in natural and semi-natural environments. This vine is one of two major species threatening natural regeneration in logged or disturbed areas. It prefers disturbed habitats and openings, including forest gaps and margins. Probably the second most invasive creeping vine that threatens forests in Vanuatu is Mikania micrantha (also called mile-a-minute weed or American rope, and sometimes confused with Polygonum perfoliatum). This is a perennial, twining plant that is rampant and fast spreading. It grows best where fertility, organic matter, soil moisture, and humidity are all high. It damages or kills other plants by cutting out light and smothering them. The plant is believed to have been intentionally introduced by the American army during World War II. Like Merremia peltata it grows very fast in disturbed forests and natural openings. Forest regeneration is difficult where this plant is established. A number of other invasive plants are worthy of mentioning here, even though their impacts are less apparent in Vanuatu. These include Acacia farnesiana and Coccinia grandis (ivy or scarlet gourd), which is a smothering vine that climbs over trees and forms a dense cover that completely shades and destroys the forest underneath. Another is Mimosa invisa, a giant plant covered with thorns. This is becoming a problem in Vanuatu, particularly in disturbed areas such as pasture. It moves into nearby forests, where it interferes with regeneration at the forest edges and forms dense tangles that are difficult to walk through. Also noteworthy is Clidemia hirta (Koster's curse), which is a very serious weed of the forest understory in Vanuatu. Another nuisance species is Lantana camara, which is particularly common in pasture areas, but nevertheless interferes with the growth of more desirable trees. One of the activities that aids in the spread of Lantana camara is the movement of logging equipment in the forest. Lantana is a pioneer weed that grows in newly disturbed areas. Another plant with similar impacts is Psidium guajava (guava or kuava). Mixed with species such as Mimosa invisa this plant is a complete barrier to the natural expansion of forests. Birds and other animals disperse seeds of Psidium guajava. Its growth is vigorous, particularly in the low plains used for grazing or in other disturbed areas. Invasive animals and insects Invasive animal species are also upsetting the natural balance in the forests. Many have impacts that are yet to be fully understood, as far as forests or trees are concerned, although it is already clear that some are causing immense destruction to forest biodiversity. One major pest is Acridotheres tristis (Indian mynah). This bird may have been introduced in the 1970s. It is fast becoming a dominant species on many islands. Commonly seen on cattle ranches, the bird is now an agricultural pest and reduces biodiversity by competing for nesting hollows, destroying chicks and eggs, and evicting small mammals. A study of its impacts on the forest in Vanuatu could yield very interesting and discouraging results. By displacing and preying on other birds and species, Acridotheres tristis is bound to have negative impacts on the forest and biodiversity. Another invasive pest is Achatina fulica (the giant African snail). This is a major agricultural and garden pest, but it also feeds on trees and leaves. It has been observed to feed on the bark of certain trees like Dendrocnide latifolia and tissues or shoots of young seedlings. It is also a vector (as are many snail species) of several human pathogens and parasites. It lays hundreds of eggs and multiplies at an alarming rate. In Vanuatu, droughts and prolonged dry conditions have killed large numbers of snails and slowed the extent of damage. Achatina fulica is found on a number of major islands. In dealing with snails, Vanuatu has also become a victim of biological control gone wrong, with the introduction of Euglandina rosea (rosy wolf snail or cannibal snail). This species was introduced as a biological control agent for Achatina fulica. It has been discovered, however, that although Euglandina rosea has indeed attacked the Achatina fulica, there is worrying evidence that this cannibal snail has caused the extinction of numerous native snails in other countries. The cannibal snail prefers preying on smaller snails, especially if the shell can be swallowed whole, suggesting that a component of its feeding behaviour is dictated by calcium demands. This means Vanuatu risks losing most, if not all, of its native snail species. The impacts of this alien species on the vegetation of Vanuatu perhaps begins with the destabilizing of snail and other species populations that are important to natural systems on which healthy forests depend. Combined with Achatina fulica, invasive snails are serious forest pests in Vanuatu. Another species of concern in Vanuatu is Wasmannia auropunctata (also known as cocoa tree-ant). Considered to be perhaps the greatest ant species threat in the Pacific, the little fire ant is blamed for reducing species diversity, reducing overall abundance of flying and tree-dwelling insects, and eliminating arachnid populations. Quarantine authorities have indicated that this species is currently confined to an island in the Banks group. Though its impacts on forests are yet to be fully understood, it is likely that Wasmannia auropunctata will alter many of the natural process that determine the kind of forest and related biodiversity of the islands. Given that invasive ants are capable of killing crabs, Vanuatu can expect Wasmannia auropunctata to be a major threat to its many crab species, including the famous Birgus latro (coconut crab), which is already heavily exploited by humans. Given the spread of ants globally, Vanuatu also needs to be aware of the possible introduction of other ants such as Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant). Apart from the potential to devastate human surroundings this species is also known to decimate endemic species, rapidly degrade native communities, and alter ecosystem processes. It interferes with and preys on species of reptiles, birds and mammals both on the forest floor and canopy. This species has caused extensive canopy dieback on Christmas Island and is capable of changing the structure of forests as a result of its impacts on native species[5]. The impact of sooty mould, which kills trees and shrubs, is increased where Anoplolepis gracilipes is established. Some claim this species is already present in Vanuatu, but local authorities refute this claim. Solenopsis invicta (red imported fire ant) is also a potential threat. Importance and relevance of invasive species The threats and nuisance posed by invasive species in Vanuatu have been a concern for a good number of years, perhaps beginning in the late-1970s and early-1980s. But, some invasive species were introduced to the islands much earlier. This is particularly true for a number of plant species like Merremia peltata and Mikania micrantha that now threaten forests and make sustainable forestry activities increasingly difficult. Despite the realization of the growing problem caused by invasive species, until recently, little was done to manage or control the spread of these species. It would also be correct to say that very little knowledge existed on these invasive species and the dangers they pose. It was only during the latter part of the 1990s that invasive species were given increased attention. Though these are now gaining increasing importance in the country, one could only wish that efforts to address them had come earlier, and been backed with more technical and financial resources. Vanuatu, like many other island countries, now accords alien invasive species much greater relevance, but this relevance is very much belated. Through a number of studies, the National Biodiversity Strategy And Action Plan (NBSAP) project implemented by the Environment Unit has brought the issue of invasive species to the attention of a wider audience. The studies, among other things, noted the impacts invasive species are having on the environment at large. The results of the assessment were documented in the country’s National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy for further action (see below). That more is being understood, said and done about invasive species in Vanuatu is not disputed. However, a number of other issues provide essential background to building on appreciation of the importance and relevance accorded to matters of invasive species. First, invasive species did not take priority (to a large extent this is still a problem) in government agencies until the late-1990s and early-2000. Second, because of the tradition of the sectoral approach employed by government agencies in the management of resources, the invasive problem, which cuts across sectors, has been more of a concern to the Vanuatu Quarantine and Inspection Service (VQIS) than others, although the work of the VQIS does not specifically address forest invasive species. Third, Vanuatu has limited resources and capacity in terms of expertise and finances, meaning the importance of invasive issues nationally is to a large extent driven by essential input from external entities. Fourth, the tendency in resource management has, for a long time, focused on the commercial value of resources. Threats to these resources, particularly as posed by invasive species and diseases, are seldom identified or addressed. This is especially true in forestry. Fifth, the understanding of invasive species by decision-makers is minimal and corresponds with seemingly limited political will given to the subject. Finally, island communities have little knowledge about invasive species. Put simply, for many years the majority of people did not know what an "invasive species" is. Many still think they are native and cause no detrimental impacts. More recently, many more communities are learning about these unwanted species. Management and control measures Plant Protection Act Efforts are being made to manage and control forest invasive species. It is appropriate to note two phases or levels to this management and control regime. The first are measures implemented by the VQIS through the Plant Protection Act of 1997. This legislation provides for the exclusion and effective management of plant pests and facilitates exports of plant produce. The Act provides mechanisms to deter any entry of unwanted organisms (including invasive species) that may affect the environment and natural resources, agriculture, humans, control of pests and diseases; and for the eradication of exotic pests and diseases. Phytosanitary measures Imports: The VQIS only issues import permits for approved products from approved countries, after a risk analysis has been carried out on the product. This includes the pest list associated with the product, effects on the environment, effects on agriculture, and consulting stakeholders. Stakeholders usually include relevant government departments and industries. All products are approved on a no risk or minimum risk basis. Strict guidelines controlling imports of plants or plant products are currently in place because some plants that have been approved for import by relevant departments have become invasive. Import certification: all approved imports of plants and plant products are documented with specific requirements for each country. The specific requirements are issued with the import permit when an application for a permit to import is lodged. Border control: quarantine posts have been established on the main islands of Vanuatu to control the entry of unwanted pests and diseases as well as imports of plants and plant products. Controls on existing entry pathways have been quite effective. Quarantine inspections: all approved imports of plant and plant products are inspected at the border. Goods that meet import requirements are released, while those that do not meet standards are either destroyed or reshipped. All illegal imports are dealt with under the Act and offenders are prosecuted. Plant protection services Surveying Vanuatu Like most least-developed countries, Vanuatu has very limited plant protection resources. The isolated nature of the islands allows for very little surveying and monitoring. Most of the monitoring systems in place are for specifically targeted pests and are implemented by the Plant Protection Service of the VQIS. Regional institutions conduct the survey and documentation of general pests and plant diseases, with assistance from local counterparts. These are not carried out on a regular basis. Monitoring Monitoring of pests and diseases is carried out by the Plant Protection Service, with the assistance of rural communities. Monitoring of pests and diseases in the islands is expensive and, to mitigate costs, the VQIS has set up an awareness campaign under which targeted pests are documented and this information is disseminated to rural communities. Rural communities are advised to report any unusual plants, pest, and diseases to the local authorities or the quarantine office. Control measures Vanuatu has undertaken several control operations for specific pests and diseases, but with very little success. The control measures that Vanuatu has used include: mechanical control, chemical control and the introduction of bio-control agents. A good example of a biological control agent introduced to control Achatina fulica is the predator snail Euglandina rosea. The predator snail has become invasive and is attacking native snails. Mechanical control is usually done by farmers to control weeds. Chemical control was employed in an attempt to control Wasmannia auropunctata, but it has proven very costly. All flights and ships from Banks and Torres are sprayed and checked to prevent the further spread of Wasmannia auropunctata. Awareness-raising is also a major activity. Eradication measures There are currently no eradication programmes for established pests and diseases. Vanuatu needs assistance for the implementation of such programmes. This also applies to invasive species of plants that are well established in Vanuatu. Emergency diseases and pest response Vanuatu is very vulnerable to the effects of an introduction of diseases, pests, or invasive plants and animals. An emergency disease and pest response system is in place to complement and be part of a total detection/protection system. This system starts at the border, through routine surveillance, and carries into response activation to control and/or eradicate a disease or pest before it becomes established. Forestry and environmental management and conservation acts The second level of the management regime can be categorized as that executed by the DoF and the Environment Unit. The Forestry Act of 2001 makes provision for the protection, development and sustainable management of forests and the regulation of the forestry industry in Vanuatu. It notes as one of the principles of forestry administration the protection of the diversity of forests and forest ecosystems in Vanuatu. The Act, however, says nothing about the control or management of forest invasive species. Part VI of the Act talks about the protection of the environment, but focuses on conservation per se. One of the cited dangers to forests is fire. Alien species are not acknowledged. Furthermore, although the Act calls for rehabilitation of forests, this is not because invasive species are more likely to occur in logged areas hence interfering with forest regeneration. The only control measure recommended by the DoF for the management of Cordia alliodora is to use the plant as fuel-wood. Even at the level of the DoF, a sense of urgency in relation to invasive species has developed only recently. The Department has still to give invasive species the policy priority, strategies and resources required. The Environmental Management and Conservation Act of 2002 provides for the conservation, sustainable development and management of the environment of Vanuatu. The Act defines foreign organisms as all stages of any life form that are not endemic to Vanuatu. However, this is almost all that the law says with regard to invasive species. The Act deals mostly with biodiversity in general and has little focus on invasive species. Other measures and initiatives Forest and environmental instruments Vanuatu is party to a number of international and regional environment-related instruments and initiatives. There are also a number of other national instruments. These need not all be enumerated here. Vanuatu signed the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1993 and therefore agrees to "try to prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate, those alien species that threaten ecosystems, habitats or species"[6] and prepare a National Biodiversity Strategy And Action Plan (NBSAP) as noted above. An Act to ratify the CBD was also passed to effect the implementation of this convention. Nevertheless, there is a need for additional instruments to ensure that Vanuatu fully meets its obligations under the treaty. The country’s constitution states that every person has among other fundamental duties "to protect Vanuatu and to safeguard the national wealth, resources and environment in the interests of the present and future generation"[7]. A national conservation strategy was adopted in 1994, but this document says nothing about invasive species. A national forest policy (nfp) adopted in 1997 does not address the management of invasive species either. It acknowledges that vines compete with natural regeneration, but fails to note that two of the greatest vine threats are invasive. The code of logging practice (COLP) does not say anything about invasive species, but could be helpful in the control of invasive species because of its emphasis on limiting forest opening. The only national instrument to say anything much on unwanted species is the Prevention of the Spread of Noxious Weeds Regulation of 1966. This is, however, outdated and does not prevent the transmission of such weeds on trucks, heavy equipment and by other means. Another relevant ordinance is the Wild Bird Protection Regulation of 1962. This is unfortunately also outdated and not effectively applied. It fails to address the current need to protect wildlife, endangered species and habitats. Vanuatu’s NBSAP is now complete and is, in many ways, the first policy and strategy document that gives high priority to the management of introduced species. The document notes the need to develop an administrative system to prevent adverse impacts of organisms that are potentially invasive, and also called for communities and implementing organizations/stakeholders to find opportunities to manage and eradicate species that are already threatening Vanuatu’s biodiversity (Environment Unit, 1999: 21-22)[8]. A number of priorities, responsible agencies and required activities are noted. The provisions in the document are, however, inadequate, as far as the involvement and role of the DoF is concerned. In other words, the NBSAP cannot be translated into detailed activities to be implemented by the DoF. Given the immense need for knowledge about an enormous diversity of species that impact on the forests, it might perhaps be more appropriate to have policies and other instruments on the management and control of forest invasive species. In August 2002, the first ever consultation involving a number of key groups in relation to invasive species was organized at the national level. The government institutions and stakeholders involved included the Environment Unit, government ministries including the departments of Forestry, Fisheries, Agriculture, and Attorney General, the VQIS, and a farm association. This is an integrated approach that partially stems from NBSAP research findings on invasive species. This group comprises the key institutions currently involved with invasive species management. The meeting noted a need to review existing policies/laws to identify their consistency or otherwise with respect to invasive species, so that the management and control of these species is provided for. The review should enable stakeholders to decide whether to work under existing laws or if there is a need to have a new law on invasive species. A policy on invasive species that identifies the roles of every institution or stakeholder is seen as essential. A review of these instruments is now underway. Vanuatu also benefited from a workshop on invasive species conducted by the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and its partners. Given these efforts, more people are becoming aware of invasive species and their impacts. Conclusion The forests of Vanuatu - and the biodiversity of which they are a part - are becoming increasingly invaded and threatened by alien species. These species include both plants and animals. This scenario calls for concerted new efforts on the part of the DoF and stakeholders. Vanuatu has a number of instruments for environmental management. These are nevertheless fragmented and underdeveloped, while some are outdated - and more often than not, legislation is neither applied nor enforced (Environment Unit, 1998: 9)[9]. The VQIS already has an elaborate pest and disease management and control system in place. The Forestry Act and NFP are generally devoid of provisions on invasive species. Consequently, the DoF has done little to address the crisis brought about as a result of the introduction of invasive species. A common weakness in existing instruments is their lack of emphasis on new environmental issues, particularly the challenge posed by invasive species. The review of instruments that have bearing on invasive species is a step in the right direction. The DoF may have to develop its own instruments and be a leading implementing agency in addressing the invasive problem in forests. It is recommended that - given the crosscutting and multi-sectoral nature of the problem and coupled with limited resources, expertise and capacity - an integrated approach with the assistance of regional and international bodies and governments would be the best option. Work begun by the relevant government agencies and stakeholders must be continued and backed by political will. The commitment of donors in terms of expertise and finance is a necessity and therefore called for. This is not only to aid in the development of the required management and control instruments, but also in actual ground implementation. The need for research into invasive species to scientifically describe the severity of their impacts and future threat to the forests is an activity to be considered seriously. The inclusion of forest invasive species in a revised NFP or the development of a policy entirely on invasive species has to be considered. Forest health surveillance should become an integral aspect of a new NFP because of the common problems addressed. There may be a need for an instrument that governs the introduction of plants and animals for biological control purposes. Government, through its agencies and stakeholders will, among other things, need to increasingly raise awareness about invasive species and work with communities. This is to develop a long-term, cheaper and sustainable approach to effectively addressing the impacts of invasive species on the forest resources of Vanuatu. Forest invasive species and their impacts on afforestation in Viet Nam Pham Quang Thu Forest Protection Research Division, Forest Institute of Viet Nam Introduction Over the past few decades, there has been a steady expansion of forest plantations across the country. According to data collected during 1999 by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, it is estimated that 1 471 394 hectares of forest plantations have been established in Viet Nam, of which there are about 288 073 hectares of Acacia, 348 000 hectares of Eucalyptus, 218 056 hectares of pines, 100 000 hectares of Melaleuca and about 500 000 hectares of other exotic and native species plantations. Products from plantations play a very important role in supplying raw materials for industry and are gradually replacing forest products harvested from natural forests. Plantations are now regarded as a means to meet wood requirements without putting excess pressure on natural forests. However, there is a fear that a catastrophic outbreak of pests and diseases may occur suddenly and that weed species may invade plantations during the rainy season, affecting tree growth and the quality of plantations. Outbreaks of diseases and insect pests occur in as much as 20 000 hectares of plantations annually. Surveys of diseases, insect pests and weeds and their importance to the trees have been implemented several times, on different scales, by various institutions including: the Forest Science Institute of Viet Nam, the Forest Science Sub-Institute of Viet Nam, the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute and the Forest Protection Department. Table 1 lists the most important plantations species in Viet Nam. Table 1: Tree species investigated. Species Abbreviation Acacia auriculiformis Aa Acacia mangium Am Acacia hybrid Ah Eucalyptus camaldulensis Ec Eucalyptus spp. Epp Eucalyptus tereticornis Et Eucalyptus urophylla Eu Casuarina equisetifolia Cas Cinnamomum cassia Cin Dendrocalamus membranaceus Den Manglietia glauca Mg Melaleuca spp. Mela Pinus merkusii Pme Pinus kesiya Pk Pinus caribaea Pca Pinus massoniana Pma Styrax tonkinensis St Tectona grandis Tec Status of forest invasive species in Viet Nam Forest invasive insect pests The most important insect pest species are listed in alphabetically in Table 2, with an indication of the species that are affected by these insects. There are 19 main invasive insect species associated with large-scale monocultural forest plantations in Viet Nam. The most important is a species of leaf feeding caterpillar Dendrolimus punstatus, which invades plantations of Pinus merkusii and P. massoniana. Six species of insects, such as Anomis fulvida, Pteroma plagiophleps and Speiredonia retorta are considered to be important and widespread invasive species and their outbreaks occur widely in plantations. The other species are considered important invasive species and outbreaks have occurred locally in plantations. Table 2: The major forest invasive insects Species Family Principal trees attacked Anomis fulvida (Guennee) Noctuidae Am Arbela baibarana (Mats) Cossidae Cin Aristobia approximator (Thoms.) Cerambycidae Ec, Et Culcula paterinaria (Brem. Et Grey) Geometridae Cin Cyrtotrachelus longimanus (Fabr.) Curcunionidae Den Dendrolimus punctatus (Walker) Lasiocampidae Pme, Pma Dioryctria abietella (Denis Schif) Pyraliidae Pme, Pma Dioryctria sylvestrella Pyralidae Pca Erthesina fullo (Thunberg) Pentatomidae Cin Eutectona machaeralis (Walker) Pyralidae Tec Fentonia sp. Notodontidae St Macrotermes sp. Termitidae Pk, Pme, Pma, Epp, Am, Aa, Ah Microtermes sp. Termitidae Am, Aa, Ah, Epp Nesodiprion biremis (Konow) Diprionidae Pme, Pma Odontotermes sp. Termitidae Am, Ah, Aa, Epp, Mg, Cin, Tec Pteroma plagiophleps (Hampson.) Psychidae Am Shizocera sp. Agridae Mg Speiredonia retorta (L.) Noctuidae Am Zeuzera coffeae (Nietn) Cossidae Cas, Mela The main pathogens attacking forest plantations The major pathogens affecting plantations in Viet Nam are listed alphabetically in Table 3. Nine main species have infected large-scale monocultural plantations in Viet Nam. Three of these species Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti, Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum and Corticium salmonicolor are the most important exotic species affecting Eucalyptus and Acacia plantations. The other species are considered to be important species to both exotic and indigenous species plantations. Table 3: Major pathogens to forest plantations Species Family Principal trees attacked Botryosphaeria dothidae Botryosphaeriaceae Ah, Ec Corticium salmonicolor B.Broome Cortciaceae Am, Ah, Ec, Eh Cronartium sp. Melampsoraceae Pk Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti Melanconiaceae Epp Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum Moniliaceae Epp Ganoderma spp. Ganodermataceae Am, Aa, Ah Phaeophleospora destructans Dematiaceae Eu, FA Ralstonia solanacearum Smit Pseudomonaceae Eu, Cas Unidentified Cin Invasive weeds in forest plantations The main invasive weeds in Viet Nam are listed in Table 4. There were six main weeds, of which two species, blady grass and feather pennisetum, are very widespread and important in Acacia and Eucalyptus plantations. Table 4: Major weeds to forest plantations Species Family Principal trees attacked Eleocharis acicularis (L.) R.& Sch. Cyperaceae Mela Eupatorium odoratum Linn. Asteraceae Am, Aa, Ah, Epp Pme, Pma, Pk, Pca, Mg, St Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. Poaceae Am, Aa, Ah, Epp, Pme, Pma, Pk, Pca, Mg, St Mimosa pudica Linn. Mimosaceae Am, Aa, Ah, Epp, Pme, Pma, Pk, Pca, Mg, St Mimosa pigra L Fabaceae Mela Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult Poaceae Am, Aa, Ah, Epp Impacts of invasive species to plantations Acacia plantations Acacia spp. plantations have been planted throughout the country for the production of pulp for paper and medium density fiberboard. In general, Acacia plantations are remarkably free of insect pests. Insects commonly found feeding on the foliage include several species of bagworms, curculionid beetles and some hairy caterpillars. However, outbreaks of insect pests in Acacia mangium plantations occasionally occur on a large-scale. Bagworm (Pteroma plagiophleps) (Lepidoptera, Psychidae) has caused damage to Acacia mangium in Hoa Binh and Ha Tay provinces (northern Viet Nam) in 2000 and 2001, respectively. Other leaf-eating insects, Anomis fulvida (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) and Speiredonia retorta (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) have infested thousands of hectares of 2-10 year-old Acacia mangium plantations in Tuyen Quang, Phu Tho, and Thai Nguyen provinces in 2001 and in 2002. In addition, Odontotermes sp., Microtermes sp. and Macrotermes sp. (Isoptera, Termitidae) killed 10-50 percent of planted saplings aged less than one year in several locations of the central highlands and mountainous areas. Measures for controlling insect pests attacking Acacia plantations have been implemented. Chemical compounds are the main means of controlling these insect pests. The chemical control measures have been partially successful, but are expensive to implement and have a considerable negative impact on the environment. There are currently no effective measures for controlling termites. Diseases associated with Acacia plantations were investigated at a number of locations in Viet Nam. The most important disease is the pink disease caused by the fungal pathogen Corticium salmonicolor (Aphyllophorales, Cortciaceae). This disease occurs in locations with high rainfall, of more than 1 800 mm per year, which includes most of Viet Nam. It attacks plantations aged more than three years. Disease incidence is regarded as very high in southeast Viet Nam, ranging from 10-40 percent depending on species/provenance or clones. Stem canker associated with Acacia hybrids has shown a tendency to develop into outbreaks in the central highlands (Kon Tum province). One thousand hectares of 2-3 year-old Acacia hybrid plantations were infected by Botryosphaeria dothidae (Dothideales, Botryosphaeriaceae), with disease incidence ranging from 10-30 percent. Heart rot disease occurs in Acacia plantations in high rainfall areas, especially in the north and southeast of Viet Nam. Pathogens were identified to be Ganoderma spp. The disease incidence with advanced decay and hollows was 20-30 percent. There are currently no measures for controlling these diseases. It seems to be impossible to spray chemical compounds because of the high costs involved and the potential for environmental pollution. Screening for provenances or clones showing disease resistance, from progeny trials, has been implemented for several years, however, the results from this work have yet to be been published. Weeds are considered to be very important invasive species in Acacia plantations aged less than two years. The dominant weeds are blady grass (Imperata cylindrica) and feather pennisetum (Pennisetum polystachion). These two species affected growth of plantations. Two other species Mimosa pudica and Eupatorium odoratum are distributed widely and considered to be important weed species. Eucalyptus plantations In Viet Nam, a few species of lepidopteran caterpillars have been found to feed on Eucalyptus leaves, although outbreaks are rare. The cerambycid borer (Aristobia approximator) (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) caused severe damage to thousands of hectares of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Eucalyptus tereticornis plantations in the Mekong delta. The most common insect pests are subterranean termites including Odontotermes sp., Microtermes sp. and Macrotermes sp. (Isoptera, Termitidae) that attack the roots of young transplants and kill 10-60 percent of saplings aged less than one year. Measures for controlling insect pests attacking Eucalyptus plantations have not yet been implemented. There are currently no effective measures for controlling termites. Diseases associated with Eucalyptus plantations have been investigated throughout Viet Nam. The most important and widespread diseases have been leaf blight disease caused by the fungal pathogen Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum and leaf spot disease caused by the fungal pathogen Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti. Disease incidence for the first disease was regarded as very high in southeast and central Viet Nam, ranging from 10-90 percent depending on species/provenance or clones. Leaf spot disease is caused by Phaeophleospora destructans and is associated with E. urophylla and some hybrid clones. It was first found in Viet Nam in 2001. The disease incidence is 10-60 percent in Phu Tho and Gia Lai provinces. Disease incidence of the bacterial wilt disease caused by Ralstonia solanacearum Smit, associated with Eucalyptus urophylla plantations is 10-30 percent in the northern provinces. There are currently no measures for controlling these diseases. Research on provenances or clones showing disease resistance from progeny trials continues to be implemented. The results of this work have not yet been published. The most important weeds in Eucalyptus plantations are Imperata cylindrica and Pennisetum polystachion. These two species affect the growth of the plantations. Two other species Mimosa pudica and Eupatorium odoratum are widely distributed and considered to be important species. Pine plantations Outbreaks of the caterpillar Dendrolimus punctatus (Lepidoptera, Lasiocampidae) have occurred frequently on a large scale in Pinus merkusii and P. massoniana plantations in the whole country. Sawfly Nesodiprion biremis (Lepidoptera, Diprionidae) has caused considerable damage to Pinus kesyia and P. massoniana in the central highlands of Viet Nam. These two species have severely affected resin productivity in Viet Nam. Other shoot borer pests Dioryctria abietella (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) and Dioryctria sylvestrella (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) attacked Pinus merkusii, P. massoniana and P. caribaea in some northern provinces. Macrotermes sp. attacks the roots of young transplants and killed 10-30 percent saplings aged less than one year in several mountainous areas. Chemical measures have been implemented by growers to manage these pests. However, these control measures are costly and cause significant environmental pollution. White blister rust Cronatium sp. is associated with Pinus kesyia in Lam Dong and Gia Lai provinces. Disease incidence is rather high in young plantations in some locations. Identification of species and the implementation of control measures are yet to be done. Impacts of weeds on Melaleuca leucadendra and M. cajuputi plantations Mimosa pigra is quickly becoming one of the most serious species threats to Melaleuca plantations in the freshwater wetland areas of the Tram Chim National Park and U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve. At present, the U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve and Tram Chim National Park in the Cuu Long (Mekong) river delta are endangered by Mimosa. Mimosa plants were first observed at Tram Chim in 1985. By 1999, some 150 hectares were infested. A distribution map drawn up by the HCM Natural Science College in June 2000 showed an infested area of 490 hectares. The map also predicted that a further 4 600 hectares, or 60 percent of the park’s land area, is highly susceptible to Mimosa invasion. At present this species has also developed at other locations such as Tri An lake, Cat Tien Natural Park, and Hoa Binh lake. A Mimosa control experiment showed that cutting stems, burning off, and a combination of the two, were ineffective measures to eradicate the plant from Tram Chim National Park. The experiment found that the plants resprouted quickly after cutting and that burning helped to trigger the spread and germination of Mimosa seeds. The most successful control method was cutting the Mimosa plants during the flood season. The Tram Chim wetlands are subject to between four and six months of flooding each year. The experiment cut the stems when the floodwater was about 30 cm above the soil surface. Four months after the treatment, when floodwater was still 60 to 80 cm above soil surface, none of the treated plants had resprouted and 75-90 percent of the roots had died. Other plantations Outbreaks of the leaf-feeding caterpillar, Fentonia sp. (Lepidoptera, Notodontidae), have occurred annually in Styrax tonkinensis plantations causing different levels of damage. In 2001, an outbreak of Fentonia sp. occurred, affecting about 2 100 hectares of 3-5 year old plantations. Chemical compounds were applied to control this insect. Outbreaks of sawfly (Shizocera sp.) (Hymenoptera, Agridae) have caused considerable damage to Manglietia glauca plantations in northern Viet Nam. Eutectona machaeralis (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) attacked Tectona grandis plantations in several provinces, and caused considerable damage. Some insect pests such as: Culcula paterinaria (Lepidoptera, Geometridae), Arbela baibarana (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) and Erthesina fullo (Hemiptera, Pentatomidae) are important species affecting Cinnamomum cassia plantations, in some provinces. Cyrtotrachelus longimanus Fabr. (Coleoptera, Curcunionidae) feeds on young bamboo shoots of Dendrocalamus membranaceus causing considerable damage in Thanh Hoa and Hoa Binh provinces. Conclusions and discussions At present, the Vietnamese Government is in the process of implementing a programme for the reforestation of 5 million hectares, by the year 2010. This means that the area of forest plantations will increase rapidly in Viet Nam. Research on planting species, natural enemies, insect pests, diseases and weeds in forest plantations and policy related to forest development and forest protection must be conducted. Outbreaks of diseases and insect pests affect as much as 20 000 hectares of plantations annually. The narrow genetic base of introduced planting stock increases the risk of pest outbreaks. No systematic research on insect pests, diseases and other forest invasive species has been conducted. Plant quarantine and avoidance of natural enemies to planting trees have not been sufficiently investigated, resulting in high costs to combat the pests. At present, chemical control methods are the most commonly applied management techniques. Other control methods are rarely applied. Screening for disease resistance or insect pest resistant tree varieties commenced several years ago, but there are currently no published results from this. There is a need for capacity building in the area of invasive species through on the job training. Additional extension activities are required to promote the use of IPM among farmers in Viet Nam. There is a direct need for basic information on important insect pests, pathogens, weeds etc. This should be obtained by means of an intensive research programme. [5] See Earth crash. Earth spirit. Healing ourselves and dying planet. www.eces.org/index.php/368?page_nbr=2 - 11k [6] Convention on Biological Diversity [7] Constitution of the Republic of Vanuatu [8] Environment Unit, 1999. National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy. Environment Unit, Port Vila. [9] Environment Unit, 1998. Vanuatu National Report to the Conference of the Parties, Environment Unit, Port Vila. Previous Page Top of Page http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae944e/ae944e0a.htm#TopOfPage Foreword Invasive species: an overview http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae944e/ae944e00.htm#Contents Table of Contents Foreword Invasive species: an overview Introductory session Opening session Introductory remarks - Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Bangkok, Thailand Introductory remarks - Jerome S. Beatty, Deputy Director, USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Protection Technical presentations A global perspective on forest invasive species: the problem, causes, and consequences - Sally Campbell, PNW Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Portland, Oregon, USA Alien forest pests and management practices in China - Wei Diansheng, Department of Silviculture, State Forest Administration, Bejing, China Pest risk assessments and incursion pathways - Allan T. Bullard. Director, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, USDA Forest Service FAO activities related to invasive species in forestry - Simmathiri Appanah, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand Ecological and economic impacts of invasive species - Chris Baddeley, Team Leader Biosecurity Policy, New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) - Greg Stubbings, National Manager, Forestry Section, Canadian Food Inspection Agency Key elements in developing a forest invasive species biosecurity strategy for Australia - Mike Cole, Office of the Chief Plant Protection Officer (OCCPO), Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) Managing invasive species: the threat to oil-palm and rubber - the Malaysian plant quarantine regulatory perspective - B.O. Asna and H.L. Ho, Crop Protection and Plant Quarantine Division, Department of Agriculture (DoA), Malaysia When good trees turn bad: the unintended spread of introduced plantation tree species in India - K.V. Sankaran, S.T. Murphy and M.A. Sreenivasan, Kerala Forest Research Institute, India CABI Bioscience, UK Centre (Ascot), United Kingdom Acacias - are they a threat as invasive species in the wet tropics? - B. Krishnapillay, H.C. Sim and M.A.A. Razak, Asia-Pacific Association of Forestry Research Institutes Forest Research Institute of Malaysia Pine wood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) and other forest pathogens in Japan - Shigeru Kaneko, Kansai Research Center, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Japan Assisted natural regeneration: countering the impact of Imperata grass infestation in the Philippines - Peter Walpole, Director, Institute of Environmental Science for Social Change, Manila, Philippines Country reports Forest invasive species strategies in Australia - Michael Cole, Office of the Chief Plant Protection Officer (OCCPO), Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) Cambodia: The Mimosa pigra report - Samreth Vanna and Ket Nang, Department of Forestry and Wildlife Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fishery Forest Invasive Species: Country Report - P. R. China - Sun Jianghua, Chinese Academy of Sciences Forest invasive species: country report - Fiji - Inoke Wainqolo and Visone Timote, Fijian Forestry Department Fiji Quarantine Inspection Service Forest invasive species: country report - India - Shekhar Kumar Niraj, Ministry of Environment and Forests The invasion of Acacia nilotica in Baluran National Park, East Java, and its control measures - R. Garsetiasih and Hendrik Siubelan, Researcher of Forest and Nature Conservation Research and Development Centre, Bogor, Indonesia Head of Baluran National Park, East Java, Indonesia Forest Invasive Species in Lao PDR - Thongphath Leuangkhamma and Vongdeuane Vongsiharath Department of Forestry Forest invasive species country paper - Nepal - Madhusudan Bista and Mahendra Prasad Chaudhary, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation Plant Quarantine Service A status report on some invasive forest species in Papua New Guinea - Robert Kiapranis and Patrick Nimiago, PNG Forest Research Institute, Papua New Guinea Country report on forest invasive species in the Philippines - N.T. Baguinon, M.O. Quimado and G.J. Francisco, University of the Philippines, Los Baños Forest Management Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Status of forest invasive species in Sri Lanka - N.D.R. Weerawardane and J. Dissanayake, Forest Department Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Invasive species in the United States of America - 2003 - David F. Thomas, Forest Health Protection, USDA Forest Service Country report on the forestry invasive species situation in Vanuatu - Ruben Bakeo and Francis Qarani, Department of Forests, Department of Quarantine Forest invasive species and their impacts on afforestation in Viet Nam - Pham Quang Thu, Forest Protection Research Division, Forest Institute of Viet Nam Appendix 1: Programme Appendix 2: List of participants Back coverhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae944e/ae944e00.htm#Contents